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26_09_87/T\OSB00
This website contains an archive of files for the Acorn Electron, BBC Micro, Acorn Archimedes, Commodore 16 and Commodore 64 computers, which Dominic Ford has rescued from his private collection of floppy disks and cassettes.
Some of these files were originally commercial releases in the 1980s and 1990s, but they are now widely available online. I assume that copyright over them is no longer being asserted. If you own the copyright and would like files to be removed, please contact me.
Tape/disk: | Home » CEEFAX disks » telesoftware2.adl |
Filename: | 26_09_87/T\OSB00 |
Read OK: | ✔ |
File size: | 2542 bytes |
Load address: | 0000 |
Exec address: | 0000 |
Duplicates
There is 1 duplicate copy of this file in the archive:
- CEEFAX disks » telesoftware2.adl » 07_10_87/T\OSB00
- CEEFAX disks » telesoftware2.adl » 26_09_87/T\OSB00
File contents
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING A preface to an exploration of the BBC Micro at Machine level. by Programmer ............................................................ Introduction: For the next six months Telesoftware will be transmitting a weekly series of files in the series OSBITS, literally Operating System Bits, in which I will take you on an exploration of the world under the lid of your BBC Micro. It's a bit like looking under the bonnet of a car, indeed I started off calling this project 'Under the Bonnet'. I hope to do two things. Firstly to help you understand and program in assembler and so in machine code. You might want to do this because it means you can write faster programs, or smaller programs, or do things you just cannot do from BASIC. You might want to do so simply as an intellectual challenge. I don't claim that I'll be the world's best teacher of assembler. I hope you will get yourself a book and find some help in that too. I know from bitter experience that a one sided view of a subject is not always the best view from which to learn. Since I only recently explored some of the areas I'll take you through myself I hope I can explain the pitfalls more clearly. I also want to generate some of the excitement of machine level programming, so besides helping you through binary and stuff like that I shall give you simple programs to play around with from the very start. The second thing I want to do is teach you something of how the BBC operating system is designed to help you program. I'll explain how to use OSBYTES and OSWORDS and other OScalls and show how you can bend the OS to do what you want to do by intercepting parts of it. Finally there should be room for this project to be interactive. If you like what I'm doing tell me, it'll spur me on. If you don't like it then tell my why. I may not be able to reply individually but I will take note. Off we go then. A bit of light relief to start with a text only module with some historical background to computers and computing. ........................................................... The History of Computing in 1200 words approx The dictionary says that a computer is a reckoner, an electronic machine that makes calculations or controls operations that can be expressed in numerical or logical terms. If you are reading this you almost certainly have a micro-computer of your own but you will equally certainly not have had one for more than 10 years and probably much less. In fact as little as fifteen years ago most people's idea of a computer, gained from science fiction TV programmes like 'A for Andromeda', was of a room full of machinery with tape drives that buzzed and printers that clattered. You communicated with the computer by using a typewriter. Indeed when I went to university in 1969 the IBM main frame computer that my engineering department used was just like this. But then I took a slide rule with me! Broadly speaking computers as we understand them today owe their origins to events back as far as the 17th century. The first adding machine was probably built in 1623 by Wilhelm Schikard in Tubingen in the south of Germany, but the earliest surviving one is a "Pascaline" built by Blaise Pascal in Rouen in France in 1642. There is an example of one in the Science Museum in London. (Yes, the Pascal after whom the language was named.) In 1674 Gottfried Leibniz wrote a mathematical paper about an arithmetic using only 1s and 0s. This was the probable birth of binary maths. The economist Adam Smith, writing in 1776, is credited with the idea that any complex task could be broken down into a series of simple operations. These could be divided among several workers. In 1784 the post-revolutionary government in France decided to decimalise the circle, dividing a right angle into 100 grades instead of 90 degrees. Because of this they had to calculate new sets of mathematical tables. Taking notice of Smith's ideas they used teams of operators with each person performing a simple part of the calculations. (The French were fanatical about decimalisation. Some of their ideas caught on, and remain as the metric system, whereas others, like this circle business and a decimal calendar, did not.) Many people say that the Victorian, Charles Babbage, was the first person to attempt to design a computer. He first designed a machine which would calculate and print out mathematical tables, called his 'Difference Engine'. But he had also heard of the method of controlling silk looms perfected by Joseph Marie Jacquard. This used holes in cards to control the patterns produced on the loom. So in 1834, Babbage put forward the idea of a mechanical computer with its instructions stored on cards. If it hadn't been for the difficulty of engineering the cogs and levers for Babbage's 'Analytical Engine', as it was called, the Victorians would have seen the development of a steam powered computer. Jacquard's loom was also the inspiration behind a punch card data processing machine invented by an American named Herman Hollerith for the US Census of 1890. It sorted the cards on the basis of the holes in them, with each hole denoting some piece of statistical information. Hollerith formed a company called the Tabulating Machine Company which then, after a couple of amalgamations, became the Computing Tabulating Recording Company which in 1924 renamed itself International Business Machines. (So there could have been a CTRC PC!) Possibly the single most important theoretical work that led to computing was a paper by Alan Turing in 1936 which described a machine that could move along a tape, backwards and forwards, following a set of rules governing its reaction to marks on the tape. The rules could make it modify the marks after reading them and a universal Turing machine, where the rules of behaviour are also marked on the tape is nothing less than a computer following a program. So the principles for automated calculating and data processing were well established by the time the second world war brought into being an electronic computer. It was called Colossus and was used by British Intelligence to help break German codes, notably Ultra. Typically it remained top secret for many years after the war, so that computing research continued without its help. (In fact several Colossi were built in time for D-Day.) Initially the British work, in Cambridge and Manchester, was directed towards producing a few large machines that would satisfy the entire national need for computing. The Americans, spurred on by the war but also by business interests, were working along similar lines. The early machines were a mixed and variegated bunch. Some, like ENIAC, calculated in decimal using special valves designed with 10 logic states. One giant American machine used electrical relays. It was called the Harvard Mark I and as it calculated it sounded like a roomful of people knitting. Most early computers had a single program permanently wired into them. Whatever information was fed into them they could only deal with it in one way. Eventually it was realised that you could give the computer instructions about what to do with information in the same way you gave it the information, for instance on punched cards or through a typewriter keyboard. The first computer to run with a program given to it in this way, rather than a hard-wired one, was the Manchester University Mark I in 1948. Like all the early electronic computers it used valves. Valves were big, unreliable, used lots of power and gave out heat. When the transistor arrived on the scene it was smaller, used less electricity, was more reliable and cooler than the valve it replaced, so it proved very useful to the computer makers. But even the invention of the transistor was not the key to computing for everyone. That only happened when it became possible to build whole integrated circuits into the wafers of the same material that was used to make transistors. This is what is now known as the microchip or "chip". The first computer on a chip, called a microprocessor, was marketed in 1971. The early computers were programmed initially by arranging the wiring or by laboriously entering machine code numbers into memory locations by hand. In 1957 IBM brought out the first programming language, FORTRAN. It stands for FORmula TRANslation and is still used widely in scientific and technical computing. It was the first computer language I learned. BASIC is a child of FORTRAN. The oldest languages, FORTRAN, COBOL and ALGOL as well as the more recent Pascal are still used but newly developed languages like ADA, Modula 2 and C have gained ground. Each language has its fans and each language has its main application. Computers have become more and more powerful as time has gone on. New techniques have arrived like parallel processing that promise yet more powerful machines. Not yet 'intelligent' machines but nonetheless useful ones. The greatest irony has been that speed limiting factors have made the most powerful computers small. The 'brains the size of a planet' of science fiction would be useless because the information transfer around the machine is limited by the speed of light. Over the next six months I'll be showing you how you can program your BBC Micro in its own language, 6502 machine code. Your micro is more powerful than most of the machines described above, so let's get the most out of it.
00000000 0d 54 48 45 20 48 49 53 54 4f 52 59 20 4f 46 20 |.THE HISTORY OF | 00000010 43 4f 4d 50 55 54 49 4e 47 0d 0d 41 20 70 72 65 |COMPUTING..A pre| 00000020 66 61 63 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 65 78 70 6c 6f |face to an explo| 00000030 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 42 42 |ration of the BB| 00000040 43 20 4d 69 63 72 6f 20 61 74 20 4d 61 63 68 69 |C Micro at Machi| 00000050 6e 65 0d 6c 65 76 65 6c 2e 0d 0d 62 79 20 50 72 |ne.level...by Pr| 00000060 6f 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 72 0d 0d 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |ogrammer........| 00000070 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |................| * 000000a0 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 0d 0d 0d 49 6e 74 72 6f 64 75 |.........Introdu| 000000b0 63 74 69 6f 6e 3a 0d 0d 46 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 |ction:..For the | 000000c0 6e 65 78 74 20 73 69 78 20 6d 6f 6e 74 68 73 20 |next six months | 000000d0 54 65 6c 65 73 6f 66 74 77 61 72 65 20 77 69 6c |Telesoftware wil| 000000e0 6c 20 62 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 6d 69 74 74 69 6e |l be transmittin| 000000f0 67 20 61 0d 77 65 65 6b 6c 79 20 73 65 72 69 65 |g a.weekly serie| 00000100 73 20 6f 66 20 66 69 6c 65 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 |s of files in th| 00000110 65 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 20 4f 53 42 49 54 53 2c |e series OSBITS,| 00000120 20 6c 69 74 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 0d 4f 70 65 72 61 | literally.Opera| 00000130 74 69 6e 67 20 53 79 73 74 65 6d 20 42 69 74 73 |ting System Bits| 00000140 2c 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 49 20 77 69 6c |, in which I wil| 00000150 6c 20 74 61 6b 65 20 79 6f 75 20 6f 6e 20 61 6e |l take you on an| 00000160 0d 65 78 70 6c 6f 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 |.exploration of | 00000170 74 68 65 20 77 6f 72 6c 64 20 75 6e 64 65 72 20 |the world under | 00000180 74 68 65 20 6c 69 64 20 6f 66 20 79 6f 75 72 20 |the lid of your | 00000190 42 42 43 20 4d 69 63 72 6f 2e 20 0d 49 74 27 73 |BBC Micro. .It's| 000001a0 20 61 20 62 69 74 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6c 6f 6f 6b | a bit like look| 000001b0 69 6e 67 20 75 6e 64 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f |ing under the bo| 000001c0 6e 6e 65 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 61 72 2c 20 69 |nnet of a car, i| 000001d0 6e 64 65 65 64 20 49 0d 73 74 61 72 74 65 64 20 |ndeed I.started | 000001e0 6f 66 66 20 63 61 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 74 68 69 73 |off calling this| 000001f0 20 70 72 6f 6a 65 63 74 20 27 55 6e 64 65 72 20 | project 'Under | 00000200 74 68 65 20 42 6f 6e 6e 65 74 27 2e 0d 0d 49 20 |the Bonnet'...I | 00000210 68 6f 70 65 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 74 |hope to do two t| 00000220 68 69 6e 67 73 2e 20 20 46 69 72 73 74 6c 79 20 |hings. Firstly | 00000230 74 6f 20 68 65 6c 70 20 79 6f 75 20 75 6e 64 65 |to help you unde| 00000240 72 73 74 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 64 0d 70 72 6f 67 72 |rstand and.progr| 00000250 61 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 73 73 65 6d 62 6c 65 72 20 |am in assembler | 00000260 61 6e 64 20 73 6f 20 69 6e 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e |and so in machin| 00000270 65 20 63 6f 64 65 2e 20 20 59 6f 75 20 6d 69 67 |e code. You mig| 00000280 68 74 20 77 61 6e 74 0d 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 74 68 |ht want.to do th| 00000290 69 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 6d 65 |is because it me| 000002a0 61 6e 73 20 79 6f 75 20 63 61 6e 20 77 72 69 74 |ans you can writ| 000002b0 65 20 66 61 73 74 65 72 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d |e faster program| 000002c0 73 2c 0d 6f 72 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 70 72 |s,.or smaller pr| 000002d0 6f 67 72 61 6d 73 2c 20 6f 72 20 64 6f 20 74 68 |ograms, or do th| 000002e0 69 6e 67 73 20 79 6f 75 20 6a 75 73 74 20 63 61 |ings you just ca| 000002f0 6e 6e 6f 74 20 64 6f 20 66 72 6f 6d 0d 42 41 53 |nnot do from.BAS| 00000300 49 43 2e 20 20 59 6f 75 20 6d 69 67 68 74 20 77 |IC. You might w| 00000310 61 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 73 6f 20 73 69 6d |ant to do so sim| 00000320 70 6c 79 20 61 73 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 74 65 6c 6c |ply as an intell| 00000330 65 63 74 75 61 6c 0d 63 68 61 6c 6c 65 6e 67 65 |ectual.challenge| 00000340 2e 0d 0d 49 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 63 6c 61 69 6d |...I don't claim| 00000350 20 74 68 61 74 20 49 27 6c 6c 20 62 65 20 74 68 | that I'll be th| 00000360 65 20 77 6f 72 6c 64 27 73 20 62 65 73 74 20 74 |e world's best t| 00000370 65 61 63 68 65 72 20 6f 66 0d 61 73 73 65 6d 62 |eacher of.assemb| 00000380 6c 65 72 2e 20 20 49 20 68 6f 70 65 20 79 6f 75 |ler. I hope you| 00000390 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 67 65 74 20 79 6f 75 72 73 65 | will get yourse| 000003a0 6c 66 20 61 20 62 6f 6f 6b 20 61 6e 64 20 66 69 |lf a book and fi| 000003b0 6e 64 0d 73 6f 6d 65 20 68 65 6c 70 20 69 6e 20 |nd.some help in | 000003c0 74 68 61 74 20 74 6f 6f 2e 20 20 49 20 6b 6e 6f |that too. I kno| 000003d0 77 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 62 69 74 74 65 72 20 65 78 |w from bitter ex| 000003e0 70 65 72 69 65 6e 63 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 0d |perience that a.| 000003f0 6f 6e 65 20 73 69 64 65 64 20 76 69 65 77 20 6f |one sided view o| 00000400 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 6a 65 63 74 20 69 73 20 6e |f a subject is n| 00000410 6f 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 62 65 |ot always the be| 00000420 73 74 20 76 69 65 77 20 66 72 6f 6d 0d 77 68 69 |st view from.whi| 00000430 63 68 20 74 6f 20 6c 65 61 72 6e 2e 20 20 53 69 |ch to learn. Si| 00000440 6e 63 65 20 49 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 72 65 63 65 6e |nce I only recen| 00000450 74 6c 79 20 65 78 70 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 73 6f 6d |tly explored som| 00000460 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 0d 61 72 65 61 73 20 49 |e of the.areas I| 00000470 27 6c 6c 20 74 61 6b 65 20 79 6f 75 20 74 68 72 |'ll take you thr| 00000480 6f 75 67 68 20 6d 79 73 65 6c 66 20 49 20 68 6f |ough myself I ho| 00000490 70 65 20 49 20 63 61 6e 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e |pe I can explain| 000004a0 20 74 68 65 0d 70 69 74 66 61 6c 6c 73 20 6d 6f | the.pitfalls mo| 000004b0 72 65 20 63 6c 65 61 72 6c 79 2e 20 20 49 20 61 |re clearly. I a| 000004c0 6c 73 6f 20 77 61 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 67 65 6e 65 |lso want to gene| 000004d0 72 61 74 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |rate some of the| 000004e0 0d 65 78 63 69 74 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 6d |.excitement of m| 000004f0 61 63 68 69 6e 65 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 20 70 72 6f |achine level pro| 00000500 67 72 61 6d 6d 69 6e 67 2c 20 73 6f 20 62 65 73 |gramming, so bes| 00000510 69 64 65 73 20 68 65 6c 70 69 6e 67 0d 79 6f 75 |ides helping.you| 00000520 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 62 69 6e 61 72 79 20 | through binary | 00000530 61 6e 64 20 73 74 75 66 66 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 74 |and stuff like t| 00000540 68 61 74 20 49 20 73 68 61 6c 6c 20 67 69 76 65 |hat I shall give| 00000550 20 79 6f 75 0d 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 70 72 6f 67 | you.simple prog| 00000560 72 61 6d 73 20 74 6f 20 70 6c 61 79 20 61 72 6f |rams to play aro| 00000570 75 6e 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 |und with from th| 00000580 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 73 74 61 72 74 2e 0d 0d 54 |e very start...T| 00000590 68 65 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 74 68 69 6e 67 20 |he second thing | 000005a0 49 20 77 61 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 69 73 20 |I want to do is | 000005b0 74 65 61 63 68 20 79 6f 75 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 |teach you someth| 000005c0 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 68 6f 77 0d 74 68 65 20 42 |ing of how.the B| 000005d0 42 43 20 6f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 |BC operating sys| 000005e0 74 65 6d 20 69 73 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 64 20 |tem is designed | 000005f0 74 6f 20 68 65 6c 70 20 79 6f 75 20 70 72 6f 67 |to help you prog| 00000600 72 61 6d 2e 20 0d 49 27 6c 6c 20 65 78 70 6c 61 |ram. .I'll expla| 00000610 69 6e 20 68 6f 77 20 74 6f 20 75 73 65 20 4f 53 |in how to use OS| 00000620 42 59 54 45 53 20 61 6e 64 20 4f 53 57 4f 52 44 |BYTES and OSWORD| 00000630 53 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 0d 4f 53 63 61 |S and other.OSca| 00000640 6c 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 73 68 6f 77 20 68 6f 77 |lls and show how| 00000650 20 79 6f 75 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 6e 64 20 74 68 | you can bend th| 00000660 65 20 4f 53 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 77 68 61 74 20 |e OS to do what | 00000670 79 6f 75 20 77 61 6e 74 0d 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 62 |you want.to do b| 00000680 79 20 69 6e 74 65 72 63 65 70 74 69 6e 67 20 70 |y intercepting p| 00000690 61 72 74 73 20 6f 66 20 69 74 2e 0d 0d 46 69 6e |arts of it...Fin| 000006a0 61 6c 6c 79 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 73 68 6f 75 6c |ally there shoul| 000006b0 64 20 62 65 20 72 6f 6f 6d 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 |d be room for th| 000006c0 69 73 20 70 72 6f 6a 65 63 74 20 74 6f 20 62 65 |is project to be| 000006d0 0d 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 76 65 2e 20 20 49 |.interactive. I| 000006e0 66 20 79 6f 75 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 77 68 61 74 20 |f you like what | 000006f0 49 27 6d 20 64 6f 69 6e 67 20 74 65 6c 6c 20 6d |I'm doing tell m| 00000700 65 2c 20 69 74 27 6c 6c 20 73 70 75 72 0d 6d 65 |e, it'll spur.me| 00000710 20 6f 6e 2e 20 20 49 66 20 79 6f 75 20 64 6f 6e | on. If you don| 00000720 27 74 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 69 74 20 74 68 65 6e 20 |'t like it then | 00000730 74 65 6c 6c 20 6d 79 20 77 68 79 2e 20 20 49 20 |tell my why. I | 00000740 6d 61 79 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 0d 61 62 6c 65 20 |may not be.able | 00000750 74 6f 20 72 65 70 6c 79 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 64 |to reply individ| 00000760 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 62 75 74 20 49 20 77 69 6c 6c |ually but I will| 00000770 20 74 61 6b 65 20 6e 6f 74 65 2e 0d 0d 4f 66 66 | take note...Off| 00000780 20 77 65 20 67 6f 20 74 68 65 6e 2e 20 20 41 20 | we go then. A | 00000790 62 69 74 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 72 65 6c |bit of light rel| 000007a0 69 65 66 20 74 6f 20 73 74 61 72 74 20 77 69 74 |ief to start wit| 000007b0 68 20 61 20 74 65 78 74 0d 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6d 6f |h a text.only mo| 000007c0 64 75 6c 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 68 |dule with some h| 000007d0 69 73 74 6f 72 69 63 61 6c 20 62 61 63 6b 67 72 |istorical backgr| 000007e0 6f 75 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 |ound to computer| 000007f0 73 20 61 6e 64 0d 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 69 6e 67 2e |s and.computing.| 00000800 0d 0d 0d 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |................| 00000810 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |................| * 00000830 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 0d 0d |................| 00000840 0d 54 68 65 20 48 69 73 74 6f 72 79 20 6f 66 20 |.The History of | 00000850 43 6f 6d 70 75 74 69 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 31 32 30 |Computing in 120| 00000860 30 20 77 6f 72 64 73 20 61 70 70 72 6f 78 0d 0d |0 words approx..| 00000870 0d 54 68 65 20 64 69 63 74 69 6f 6e 61 72 79 20 |.The dictionary | 00000880 73 61 79 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 |says that a comp| 00000890 75 74 65 72 20 69 73 20 61 20 72 65 63 6b 6f 6e |uter is a reckon| 000008a0 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 0d 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 69 |er, an.electroni| 000008b0 63 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 6d |c machine that m| 000008c0 61 6b 65 73 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e |akes calculation| 000008d0 73 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 6f 6c 73 0d 6f 70 |s or controls.op| 000008e0 65 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 61 |erations that ca| 000008f0 6e 20 62 65 20 65 78 70 72 65 73 73 65 64 20 69 |n be expressed i| 00000900 6e 20 6e 75 6d 65 72 69 63 61 6c 20 6f 72 20 6c |n numerical or l| 00000910 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 0d 74 65 72 6d 73 2e 20 20 49 |ogical.terms. I| 00000920 66 20 79 6f 75 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 61 64 69 6e |f you are readin| 00000930 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 79 6f 75 20 61 6c 6d 6f 73 |g this you almos| 00000940 74 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 6c 79 20 68 61 76 65 |t certainly have| 00000950 20 61 0d 6d 69 63 72 6f 2d 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 | a.micro-compute| 00000960 72 20 6f 66 20 79 6f 75 72 20 6f 77 6e 20 62 75 |r of your own bu| 00000970 74 20 79 6f 75 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 65 71 75 61 6c |t you will equal| 00000980 6c 79 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 6c 79 0d 6e 6f 74 |ly certainly.not| 00000990 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 61 64 20 6f 6e 65 20 66 6f | have had one fo| 000009a0 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 31 30 20 79 |r more than 10 y| 000009b0 65 61 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 6c |ears and probabl| 000009c0 79 20 6d 75 63 68 0d 6c 65 73 73 2e 20 20 49 6e |y much.less. In| 000009d0 20 66 61 63 74 20 61 73 20 6c 69 74 74 6c 65 20 | fact as little | 000009e0 61 73 20 66 69 66 74 65 65 6e 20 79 65 61 72 73 |as fifteen years| 000009f0 20 61 67 6f 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 70 65 6f 70 6c 65 | ago most people| 00000a00 27 73 0d 69 64 65 61 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 6f 6d |'s.idea of a com| 00000a10 70 75 74 65 72 2c 20 67 61 69 6e 65 64 20 66 72 |puter, gained fr| 00000a20 6f 6d 20 73 63 69 65 6e 63 65 20 66 69 63 74 69 |om science ficti| 00000a30 6f 6e 20 54 56 0d 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 73 |on TV.programmes| 00000a40 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 27 41 20 66 6f 72 20 41 6e 64 | like 'A for And| 00000a50 72 6f 6d 65 64 61 27 2c 20 77 61 73 20 6f 66 20 |romeda', was of | 00000a60 61 20 72 6f 6f 6d 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 6f 66 0d 6d |a room full of.m| 00000a70 61 63 68 69 6e 65 72 79 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 61 |achinery with ta| 00000a80 70 65 20 64 72 69 76 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 62 |pe drives that b| 00000a90 75 7a 7a 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 69 6e 74 65 |uzzed and printe| 00000aa0 72 73 20 74 68 61 74 0d 63 6c 61 74 74 65 72 65 |rs that.clattere| 00000ab0 64 2e 20 20 59 6f 75 20 63 6f 6d 6d 75 6e 69 63 |d. You communic| 00000ac0 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f |ated with the co| 00000ad0 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 62 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 |mputer by using | 00000ae0 61 0d 74 79 70 65 77 72 69 74 65 72 2e 20 20 49 |a.typewriter. I| 00000af0 6e 64 65 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 49 20 77 65 6e |ndeed when I wen| 00000b00 74 20 74 6f 20 75 6e 69 76 65 72 73 69 74 79 20 |t to university | 00000b10 69 6e 20 31 39 36 39 20 74 68 65 0d 49 42 4d 20 |in 1969 the.IBM | 00000b20 6d 61 69 6e 20 66 72 61 6d 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 |main frame compu| 00000b30 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 6d 79 20 65 6e 67 69 |ter that my engi| 00000b40 6e 65 65 72 69 6e 67 20 64 65 70 61 72 74 6d 65 |neering departme| 00000b50 6e 74 20 75 73 65 64 0d 77 61 73 20 6a 75 73 74 |nt used.was just| 00000b60 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 74 68 69 73 2e 20 20 42 75 74 | like this. 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It was c| 00001b00 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 48 61 72 76 61 72 |alled the Harvar| 00001b10 64 20 4d 61 72 6b 20 49 20 61 6e 64 20 61 73 0d |d Mark I and as.| 00001b20 69 74 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 65 64 20 69 74 |it calculated it| 00001b30 20 73 6f 75 6e 64 65 64 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 20 | sounded like a | 00001b40 72 6f 6f 6d 66 75 6c 20 6f 66 20 70 65 6f 70 6c |roomful of peopl| 00001b50 65 20 6b 6e 69 74 74 69 6e 67 2e 0d 0d 4d 6f 73 |e knitting...Mos| 00001b60 74 20 65 61 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 |t early computer| 00001b70 73 20 68 61 64 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 70 |s had a single p| 00001b80 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 20 70 65 72 6d 61 6e 65 6e 74 |rogram permanent| 00001b90 6c 79 20 77 69 72 65 64 0d 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 |ly wired.into th| 00001ba0 65 6d 2e 20 57 68 61 74 65 76 65 72 20 69 6e 66 |em. Whatever inf| 00001bb0 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 61 73 20 66 65 64 |ormation was fed| 00001bc0 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 65 6d 20 74 68 65 79 20 | into them they | 00001bd0 63 6f 75 6c 64 0d 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 65 61 6c 20 |could.only deal | 00001be0 77 69 74 68 20 69 74 20 69 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 77 |with it in one w| 00001bf0 61 79 2e 20 20 45 76 65 6e 74 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 |ay. Eventually | 00001c00 69 74 20 77 61 73 20 72 65 61 6c 69 73 65 64 0d |it was realised.| 00001c10 74 68 61 74 20 79 6f 75 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 20 67 |that you could g| 00001c20 69 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 |ive the computer| 00001c30 20 69 6e 73 74 72 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 62 | instructions ab| 00001c40 6f 75 74 20 77 68 61 74 20 74 6f 0d 64 6f 20 77 |out what to.do w| 00001c50 69 74 68 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 |ith information | 00001c60 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 77 61 79 20 |in the same way | 00001c70 79 6f 75 20 67 61 76 65 20 69 74 20 74 68 65 0d |you gave it the.| 00001c80 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 66 6f 72 |information, for| 00001c90 20 69 6e 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 6f 6e 20 70 75 6e | instance on pun| 00001ca0 63 68 65 64 20 63 61 72 64 73 20 6f 72 20 74 68 |ched cards or th| 00001cb0 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 0d 74 79 70 65 77 72 69 74 |rough a.typewrit| 00001cc0 65 72 20 6b 65 79 62 6f 61 72 64 2e 20 20 54 68 |er keyboard. Th| 00001cd0 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 |e first computer| 00001ce0 20 74 6f 20 72 75 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 0d 70 | to run with a.p| 00001cf0 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 6f 20 |rogram given to | 00001d00 69 74 20 69 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 77 61 79 2c 20 |it in this way, | 00001d10 72 61 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 68 61 |rather than a ha| 00001d20 72 64 2d 77 69 72 65 64 0d 6f 6e 65 2c 20 77 61 |rd-wired.one, wa| 00001d30 73 20 74 68 65 20 4d 61 6e 63 68 65 73 74 65 72 |s the Manchester| 00001d40 20 55 6e 69 76 65 72 73 69 74 79 20 4d 61 72 6b | University Mark| 00001d50 20 49 20 69 6e 20 31 39 34 38 2e 20 20 4c 69 6b | I in 1948. 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When t| 00001de0 68 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 6f 72 20 61 72 |he transistor ar| 00001df0 72 69 76 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 65 |rived on the sce| 00001e00 6e 65 20 69 74 20 77 61 73 0d 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 |ne it was.smalle| 00001e10 72 2c 20 75 73 65 64 20 6c 65 73 73 20 65 6c 65 |r, used less ele| 00001e20 63 74 72 69 63 69 74 79 2c 20 77 61 73 20 6d 6f |ctricity, was mo| 00001e30 72 65 20 72 65 6c 69 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 |re reliable and | 00001e40 63 6f 6f 6c 65 72 0d 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 |cooler.than the | 00001e50 76 61 6c 76 65 20 69 74 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 |valve it replace| 00001e60 64 2c 20 73 6f 20 69 74 20 70 72 6f 76 65 64 20 |d, so it proved | 00001e70 76 65 72 79 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 |very useful to t| 00001e80 68 65 0d 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 6d 61 6b 65 |he.computer make| 00001e90 72 73 2e 20 20 42 75 74 20 65 76 65 6e 20 74 68 |rs. But even th| 00001ea0 65 20 69 6e 76 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 |e invention of t| 00001eb0 68 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 6f 72 0d 77 61 |he transistor.wa| 00001ec0 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 68 65 20 6b 65 79 20 74 6f |s not the key to| 00001ed0 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 69 6e 67 20 66 6f 72 20 65 | computing for e| 00001ee0 76 65 72 79 6f 6e 65 2e 20 20 54 68 61 74 20 6f |veryone. 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The first| 00001fc0 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 63 | computer on a c| 00001fd0 68 69 70 2c 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 0d 6d 69 |hip, called a.mi| 00001fe0 63 72 6f 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 6f 72 2c 20 77 61 |croprocessor, wa| 00001ff0 73 20 6d 61 72 6b 65 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 31 39 |s marketed in 19| 00002000 37 31 2e 0d 0d 54 68 65 20 65 61 72 6c 79 20 63 |71...The early c| 00002010 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 70 72 |omputers were pr| 00002020 6f 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 64 20 69 6e 69 74 69 61 6c |ogrammed initial| 00002030 6c 79 20 62 79 20 61 72 72 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 0d |ly by arranging.| 00002040 74 68 65 20 77 69 72 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 62 79 |the wiring or by| 00002050 20 6c 61 62 6f 72 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 20 65 6e 74 | laboriously ent| 00002060 65 72 69 6e 67 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 20 63 6f |ering machine co| 00002070 64 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 0d 69 6e 74 6f 20 |de numbers.into | 00002080 6d 65 6d 6f 72 79 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 |memory locations| 00002090 20 62 79 20 68 61 6e 64 2e 20 20 49 6e 20 31 39 | by hand. 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B| 00002170 41 53 49 43 20 69 73 20 61 20 63 68 69 6c 64 20 |ASIC is a child | 00002180 6f 66 20 46 4f 52 54 52 41 4e 2e 20 20 54 68 65 |of FORTRAN. The| 00002190 20 6f 6c 64 65 73 74 0d 6c 61 6e 67 75 61 67 65 | oldest.language| 000021a0 73 2c 20 46 4f 52 54 52 41 4e 2c 20 43 4f 42 4f |s, FORTRAN, COBO| 000021b0 4c 20 61 6e 64 20 41 4c 47 4f 4c 20 61 73 20 77 |L and ALGOL as w| 000021c0 65 6c 6c 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 0d |ell as the more.| 000021d0 72 65 63 65 6e 74 20 50 61 73 63 61 6c 20 61 72 |recent Pascal ar| 000021e0 65 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 75 73 65 64 20 62 75 74 |e still used but| 000021f0 20 6e 65 77 6c 79 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 | newly developed| 00002200 20 6c 61 6e 67 75 61 67 65 73 0d 6c 69 6b 65 20 | languages.like | 00002210 41 44 41 2c 20 4d 6f 64 75 6c 61 20 32 20 61 6e |ADA, Modula 2 an| 00002220 64 20 43 20 68 61 76 65 20 67 61 69 6e 65 64 20 |d C have gained | 00002230 67 72 6f 75 6e 64 2e 20 20 45 61 63 68 20 6c 61 |ground. Each la| 00002240 6e 67 75 61 67 65 0d 68 61 73 20 69 74 73 20 66 |nguage.has its f| 00002250 61 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 65 61 63 68 20 6c 61 6e |ans and each lan| 00002260 67 75 61 67 65 20 68 61 73 20 69 74 73 20 6d 61 |guage has its ma| 00002270 69 6e 20 61 70 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 0d |in application..| 00002280 0d 43 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 |.Computers have | 00002290 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 |become more and | 000022a0 6d 6f 72 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 66 75 6c 20 61 73 |more powerful as| 000022b0 20 74 69 6d 65 20 68 61 73 0d 67 6f 6e 65 20 6f | time has.gone o| 000022c0 6e 2e 20 20 4e 65 77 20 74 65 63 68 6e 69 71 75 |n. New techniqu| 000022d0 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 72 72 69 76 65 64 20 |es have arrived | 000022e0 6c 69 6b 65 20 70 61 72 61 6c 6c 65 6c 0d 70 72 |like parallel.pr| 000022f0 6f 63 65 73 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 72 |ocessing that pr| 00002300 6f 6d 69 73 65 20 79 65 74 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 70 |omise yet more p| 00002310 6f 77 65 72 66 75 6c 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 73 |owerful machines| 00002320 2e 20 4e 6f 74 20 79 65 74 0d 27 69 6e 74 65 6c |. Not yet.'intel| 00002330 6c 69 67 65 6e 74 27 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 73 |ligent' machines| 00002340 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 6e 65 74 68 65 6c 65 73 73 | but nonetheless| 00002350 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 6f 6e 65 73 2e 20 54 68 | useful ones. Th| 00002360 65 0d 67 72 65 61 74 65 73 74 20 69 72 6f 6e 79 |e.greatest irony| 00002370 20 68 61 73 20 62 65 65 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 73 | has been that s| 00002380 70 65 65 64 20 6c 69 6d 69 74 69 6e 67 20 66 61 |peed limiting fa| 00002390 63 74 6f 72 73 20 68 61 76 65 0d 6d 61 64 65 20 |ctors have.made | 000023a0 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 70 6f 77 65 72 66 75 |the most powerfu| 000023b0 6c 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 73 20 73 6d 61 6c |l computers smal| 000023c0 6c 2e 20 20 54 68 65 20 27 62 72 61 69 6e 73 20 |l. The 'brains | 000023d0 74 68 65 0d 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 70 6c |the.size of a pl| 000023e0 61 6e 65 74 27 20 6f 66 20 73 63 69 65 6e 63 65 |anet' of science| 000023f0 20 66 69 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 | fiction would b| 00002400 65 20 75 73 65 6c 65 73 73 0d 62 65 63 61 75 73 |e useless.becaus| 00002410 65 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f |e the informatio| 00002420 6e 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 61 72 6f 75 6e |n transfer aroun| 00002430 64 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 20 69 73 |d the machine is| 00002440 0d 6c 69 6d 69 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 |.limited by the | 00002450 73 70 65 65 64 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 0d |speed of light..| 00002460 0d 4f 76 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 78 74 20 73 |.Over the next s| 00002470 69 78 20 6d 6f 6e 74 68 73 20 49 27 6c 6c 20 62 |ix months I'll b| 00002480 65 20 73 68 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 79 6f 75 20 68 6f |e showing you ho| 00002490 77 20 79 6f 75 20 63 61 6e 0d 70 72 6f 67 72 61 |w you can.progra| 000024a0 6d 20 79 6f 75 72 20 42 42 43 20 4d 69 63 72 6f |m your BBC Micro| 000024b0 20 69 6e 20 69 74 73 20 6f 77 6e 20 6c 61 6e 67 | in its own lang| 000024c0 75 61 67 65 2c 20 36 35 30 32 20 6d 61 63 68 69 |uage, 6502 machi| 000024d0 6e 65 0d 63 6f 64 65 2e 20 20 59 6f 75 72 20 6d |ne.code. Your m| 000024e0 69 63 72 6f 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 70 6f 77 |icro is more pow| 000024f0 65 72 66 75 6c 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 |erful than most | 00002500 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 73 0d |of the machines.| 00002510 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 64 20 61 62 6f 76 65 2c |described above,| 00002520 20 73 6f 20 6c 65 74 27 73 20 67 65 74 20 74 68 | so let's get th| 00002530 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 6f 75 74 20 6f 66 20 69 74 |e most out of it| 00002540 2e 0d |..| 00002542