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EltronBKP/ElectronB
This website contains an archive of files for the Acorn Electron, BBC Micro, Acorn Archimedes, Commodore 16 and Commodore 64 computers, which Dominic Ford has rescued from his private collection of floppy disks and cassettes.
Some of these files were originally commercial releases in the 1980s and 1990s, but they are now widely available online. I assume that copyright over them is no longer being asserted. If you own the copyright and would like files to be removed, please contact me.
| Tape/disk: | Home » Personal collection » Acorn ADFS disks » Electron » Pixel_map.ADF |
| Filename: | EltronBKP/ElectronB |
| Read OK: | ✔ |
| File size: | 1FA0 bytes |
| Load address: | D0D6576 |
| Exec address: | 10000 |
File contents
�.........*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.< If the rays are composed of charged particles, they should be affected by not only magnetic fields, but also electric fields. One of the first attempts to detect such a deflection was by Heinrich Hertz. In his experiment, which he published in 1883, he passed cathode rays between a pair of parallel plates with a potential difference of around 240 volts. He tried the experiment first with the plates outside the vacuum tube, then with the plates inside, but in both cases he could detect no deflection of the rays. Whatever electric field he applied, the rays could not be made to act like moving charged particles. Hertz knew, however, that the rays were accompanied by some flow of electric current, as he had repeated Crookes's experiment on the deflection of rays by a magnetic field. Hertz concluded from these results that the rays must be electric currents flowing through the aether. He said that such a current would act in much the same way as a flexible current-carrying wire. Thus it would experience a force perpendicular to any magnetic field applied to it, but would not be affected by an electric field, since the overall charge in any region of space would be zero at all times. This was the answer which he had originally suspected, so his null results were no surprise to him. Another important discovery made by Hertz was that the rays could pass through thin sheets of aluminium and still produce phosphoscence on surfaces beyond. This supported Hertz's view that the rays could not be particles, since no particle known at the time was considered small enough to pass through such a material. Of course light was known to pass through thick pieces of glass, but this too was regarded as an entirely aetherial phenomenon. We are now familiar with the idea that particles the size of alpha particles can pass through thin solid sheets, but neither alpha particles nor atomic structure were known at the time. Hertz's pupil Lenard found this property of the rays very useful in his research, as it enabled the rays to leave the vacuum tube through a thin aluminium window, inpenetrable to air but not cathode rays. Once the rays passed outside the vacuum they were quicky stopped by collisions with air molecules, but Lenard was still able to make several useful experiments on them. His most important discovery was that the rays vastly increased the electrical conductivity of the air through which they passed. This not only provided hints as to the nature of the rays, but also provided a new means of detecting them and measuring their intensity. Lenard also studied the attenuation of the rays on passing through various materials ranging from metals to gases. His conclusion was that the fractional drop in their intensity was solely dependent on the mass of the matter they had passed through, and not on the type of material. This showed that the rays could not propagate in the same manner as light, which is blocked easily by some materials, but not by those which we call "transparent". However, Lenard remained undeterred from the view that cathode rays were waves in the aether. In 1895, Perrin succeeded in finally proving that the rays carried an electric charge. This has been assumed for many years, especially by those favouring the particle theory, but nobody had previously managed to collect the charge. Crookes had tried to do so, at Maxwell's suggestion, but had not found consistent results. Perrin's apparatus consisted of two concentric metal cylinders placed in the direct path of the rays. The rays struck the inner cylinder, giving it a charge, while the outer cyinder was connected to earth. An electroscope connected between the cylinders showed that there was indeed a substantial negative charge accumulating on the inner cylinder while the rays were striking it. It was at this stage that J.J. Thomson entered the scene. He had taken a great interest in the experiments of the previous two decades, and always maintained that the cathode rays were streams of charged particles. However, the breakthrough which stimulated Thomson to start work on the problem himself was the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895. The new rays were generated by the impact of cathode rays on certain surfaces, such as glass and metals. X-rays were clearly not the same as cathode rays, but certainly showed some characteristics in common with them. Although X-rays do not carry any electric current, and are not deflected by a magnetic field, they penetrate aluminium sheets and blacken photographic plates in much the same way as cathode rays do. In addition, as Thomson discovered, X-rays cause the gas through which they pass to become an electrical conductor. The electrical properties of gases was a subject that had always interested Thomson, so he immediately set about investigating this property of the X-rays. Thomson found that the conductivities of gases did not increase their full value immediately when X-rays started to pass through the gas, nor did they drop to zero immediately when the X-rays were switched off. This suggested that the conduction was not caused by the X-rays themselves, but by some secondary effect, perhaps the producion of charged particles in the gas. To test this supposition, he passed the gas rapidly through a glass wool filter after the X-rays were switched off, and found that the conductivity fell to zero immediately - evidently the charged particles had been filtered out. Similarly, the conductivity would drop rapidly to zero if a strong electric field was applied, thus removing any charged particles to the side of the container. The idea of charged particles carrying currents through gases was not a new idea - certainly the existence of ions in liquid electrolytes had long been known. But the experiments made Thomson wonder how the air molecules could be split into ions by the X-rays, and where the charges came from. It may have been with an eye to answering these questions that he commenced work on the nature of cathode rays, for he knew from Lenard's work that these rays too increased the conductivity of gases, and he was almost certain that charged particles were involved. By 1895 it was universally accepted, even by those who favoured the wave thoery, that charged particles were released from the cathode in a cathode ray tube. Perrin's experiment had proven this fairly conclusively. However, some physicists suggested that the cathode rays themselves were a separate phenomenon in the aether occurring at the same time as the emission of particles. As Thomson said in his Royal institution discourse, "...these particles were, in their opinion, merely accidental accompaniments of the rays, and were no more to do woth the rays than the bullet has with the flash of a rifle." To remove this objection, he repeated Perrin's experiment with a slight modification. Instead of placing the two cylinders in the direct path of the rays, he made a special tube where tha rays had to be deflected by a magnet if they were to be collected. In the absence of a magnetic field, the rays would produce a phosphorescent spot on the glass directly opposite the cathode. He would then deflect the rays in many different directions with a magnet, and follow the phosphorescent spot as it moved around the glass. He found, as he expected, that the electroscope connected between the cylinders would only indicate a charge build-up while then the spot dissapeared into the cylinder. This demonstrated that Perrin's charged particles followed exactly the same path as the cathode rays producing the phosphorescence, however they were deflected. According to Thomson, this was sufficient proof that the rays were in fact charged particles.
00000000 81 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |..........*.....| 00000010 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |..*.......*.....| * 00000040 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 3c 0d 09 49 |..*.......*.<..I| 00000050 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 |f the rays are c| 00000060 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 1a 20 6f 66 1a 20 63 68 61 |omposed. of. cha| 00000070 72 67 65 64 1a 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c |rged. particles,| 00000080 1a 20 74 68 65 79 1a 20 73 68 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 |. they. should. | 00000090 62 65 0d 61 66 66 65 63 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 6e |be.affected by n| 000000a0 6f 74 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 |ot only magnetic| 000000b0 20 66 69 65 6c 64 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 6c 73 | fields, but als| 000000c0 6f 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 |o electric field| 000000d0 73 2e 20 4f 6e 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 0d 66 69 |s. One of the.fi| 000000e0 72 73 74 1a 20 61 74 74 65 6d 70 74 73 1a 20 74 |rst. attempts. t| 000000f0 6f 20 64 65 74 65 63 74 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 20 |o detect such a | 00000100 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 61 73 20 62 |deflection was b| 00000110 79 20 48 65 69 6e 72 69 63 68 20 48 65 72 74 7a |y Heinrich Hertz| 00000120 2e 20 49 6e 20 68 69 73 0d 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d |. In his.experim| 00000130 65 6e 74 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 65 1a 20 70 |ent, which he. p| 00000140 75 62 6c 69 73 68 65 64 1a 20 69 6e 20 31 38 38 |ublished. in 188| 00000150 33 2c 20 68 65 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 20 63 61 74 |3, he passed cat| 00000160 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 |hode rays betwee| 00000170 6e 20 61 0d 70 61 69 72 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 61 |n a.pair of para| 00000180 6c 6c 65 6c 20 70 6c 61 74 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 |llel plates with| 00000190 1a 20 61 1a 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 64 |. a. potential d| 000001a0 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 72 6f |ifference of aro| 000001b0 75 6e 64 20 32 34 30 20 76 6f 6c 74 73 2e 0d 48 |und 240 volts..H| 000001c0 65 20 74 72 69 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 78 70 65 |e tried the expe| 000001d0 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 77 69 74 |riment first wit| 000001e0 68 20 74 68 65 1a 20 70 6c 61 74 65 73 1a 20 6f |h the. plates. o| 000001f0 75 74 73 69 64 65 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 76 61 63 |utside. the. vac| 00000200 75 75 6d 20 74 75 62 65 2c 0d 74 68 65 6e 1a 20 |uum tube,.then. | 00000210 77 69 74 68 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 70 6c 61 74 65 |with. the. plate| 00000220 73 1a 20 69 6e 73 69 64 65 2c 1a 20 62 75 74 1a |s. inside,. but.| 00000230 20 69 6e 1a 20 62 6f 74 68 20 63 61 73 65 73 20 | in. both cases | 00000240 68 65 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 64 65 74 65 63 74 |he could. detect| 00000250 1a 20 6e 6f 0d 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 |. no.deflection | 00000260 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 2e 20 57 68 61 |of the rays. Wha| 00000270 74 65 76 65 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 66 |tever electric f| 00000280 69 65 6c 64 20 68 65 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 64 2c |ield he applied,| 00000290 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 0d | the rays could.| 000002a0 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 20 6d 61 64 65 20 74 6f 20 61 |not be made to a| 000002b0 63 74 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 63 |ct like moving c| 000002c0 68 61 72 67 65 64 1a 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 |harged. particle| 000002d0 73 2e 1a 20 48 65 72 74 7a 1a 20 6b 6e 65 77 2c |s.. Hertz. knew,| 000002e0 1a 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 0d 74 68 61 74 20 |. however,.that | 000002f0 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 61 63 |the rays were ac| 00000300 63 6f 6d 70 61 6e 69 65 64 20 62 79 20 73 6f 6d |companied by som| 00000310 65 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 |e flow of electr| 00000320 69 63 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 2c 20 61 73 20 68 |ic current, as h| 00000330 65 20 68 61 64 0d 72 65 70 65 61 74 65 64 1a 20 |e had.repeated. | 00000340 43 72 6f 6f 6b 65 73 27 73 1a 20 65 78 70 65 72 |Crookes's. exper| 00000350 69 6d 65 6e 74 1a 20 6f 6e 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 |iment. on. the. | 00000360 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 72 61 |deflection of ra| 00000370 79 73 20 62 79 20 61 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 |ys by a magnetic| 00000380 0d 66 69 65 6c 64 2e 20 48 65 72 74 7a 20 63 6f |.field. Hertz co| 00000390 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 |ncluded from the| 000003a0 73 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 1a 20 74 68 61 74 |se results. that| 000003b0 1a 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 6d 75 73 74 20 |. the rays must | 000003c0 62 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 0d 63 75 72 72 |be electric.curr| 000003d0 65 6e 74 73 20 66 6c 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 74 68 72 |ents flowing thr| 000003e0 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 61 65 74 68 65 72 2e |ough the aether.| 000003f0 20 48 65 20 73 61 69 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 73 75 | He said that su| 00000400 63 68 20 61 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 20 77 6f 75 |ch a current wou| 00000410 6c 64 20 61 63 74 0d 69 6e 20 6d 75 63 68 20 74 |ld act.in much t| 00000420 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 77 61 79 20 61 73 20 61 |he same way as a| 00000430 20 66 6c 65 78 69 62 6c 65 1a 20 63 75 72 72 65 | flexible. curre| 00000440 6e 74 2d 63 61 72 72 79 69 6e 67 1a 20 77 69 72 |nt-carrying. wir| 00000450 65 2e 1a 20 54 68 75 73 20 69 74 20 77 6f 75 6c |e.. Thus it woul| 00000460 64 0d 65 78 70 65 72 69 65 6e 63 65 1a 20 61 20 |d.experience. a | 00000470 66 6f 72 63 65 20 70 65 72 70 65 6e 64 69 63 75 |force perpendicu| 00000480 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 79 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 |lar to any magne| 00000490 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 |tic field applie| 000004a0 64 20 74 6f 20 69 74 2c 20 62 75 74 0d 77 6f 75 |d to it, but.wou| 000004b0 6c 64 20 6e 6f 74 1a 20 62 65 1a 20 61 66 66 65 |ld not. be. affe| 000004c0 63 74 65 64 1a 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 |cted. by an elec| 000004d0 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 |tric field, sinc| 000004e0 65 20 74 68 65 20 6f 76 65 72 61 6c 6c 20 63 68 |e the overall ch| 000004f0 61 72 67 65 20 69 6e 0d 61 6e 79 20 72 65 67 69 |arge in.any regi| 00000500 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 73 70 61 63 65 20 77 6f 75 6c |on of space woul| 00000510 64 1a 20 62 65 20 7a 65 72 6f 20 61 74 20 61 6c |d. be zero at al| 00000520 6c 20 74 69 6d 65 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 61 |l times. This wa| 00000530 73 20 74 68 65 20 61 6e 73 77 65 72 20 77 68 69 |s the answer whi| 00000540 63 68 0d 68 65 20 68 61 64 20 6f 72 69 67 69 6e |ch.he had origin| 00000550 61 6c 6c 79 20 73 75 73 70 65 63 74 65 64 2c 20 |ally suspected, | 00000560 73 6f 20 68 69 73 20 6e 75 6c 6c 20 72 65 73 75 |so his null resu| 00000570 6c 74 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 6e 6f 20 73 75 72 70 |lts were no surp| 00000580 72 69 73 65 20 74 6f 20 68 69 6d 2e 20 20 0d 09 |rise to him. ..| 00000590 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e |Another importan| 000005a0 74 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6d 61 64 65 |t discovery made| 000005b0 20 62 79 1a 20 48 65 72 74 7a 1a 20 77 61 73 20 | by. Hertz. was | 000005c0 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 63 6f |that the rays co| 000005d0 75 6c 64 0d 70 61 73 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 |uld.pass through| 000005e0 20 74 68 69 6e 20 73 68 65 65 74 73 20 6f 66 1a | thin sheets of.| 000005f0 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 69 75 6d 1a 20 61 6e 64 20 | aluminium. and | 00000600 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 70 68 |still produce ph| 00000610 6f 73 70 68 6f 73 63 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 6e 0d 73 |osphoscence on.s| 00000620 75 72 66 61 63 65 73 20 62 65 79 6f 6e 64 2e 20 |urfaces beyond. | 00000630 54 68 69 73 20 73 75 70 70 6f 72 74 65 64 20 48 |This supported H| 00000640 65 72 74 7a 27 73 20 76 69 65 77 20 74 68 61 74 |ertz's view that| 00000650 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 1a 20 63 6f 75 |. the. rays. cou| 00000660 6c 64 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 0d 70 61 72 74 69 63 |ld not be.partic| 00000670 6c 65 73 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 20 6e 6f 20 70 61 |les, since no pa| 00000680 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 74 20 |rticle known at | 00000690 74 68 65 20 74 69 6d 65 20 77 61 73 20 63 6f 6e |the time was con| 000006a0 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 65 6e |sidered small en| 000006b0 6f 75 67 68 0d 74 6f 20 70 61 73 73 20 74 68 72 |ough.to pass thr| 000006c0 6f 75 67 68 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 20 6d 61 74 65 |ough such a mate| 000006d0 72 69 61 6c 2e 20 4f 66 20 63 6f 75 72 73 65 20 |rial. Of course | 000006e0 6c 69 67 68 74 20 77 61 73 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 |light was known | 000006f0 74 6f 20 70 61 73 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 0d |to pass through.| 00000700 74 68 69 63 6b 20 70 69 65 63 65 73 20 6f 66 20 |thick pieces of | 00000710 67 6c 61 73 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 |glass, but this | 00000720 74 6f 6f 20 77 61 73 20 72 65 67 61 72 64 65 64 |too was regarded| 00000730 20 61 73 1a 20 61 6e 20 65 6e 74 69 72 65 6c 79 | as. an entirely| 00000740 20 61 65 74 68 65 72 69 61 6c 0d 70 68 65 6e 6f | aetherial.pheno| 00000750 6d 65 6e 6f 6e 2e 20 57 65 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f |menon. We are no| 00000760 77 20 66 61 6d 69 6c 69 61 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 |w familiar with | 00000770 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 61 |the idea that pa| 00000780 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 74 68 65 1a 20 73 69 7a |rticles the. siz| 00000790 65 1a 20 6f 66 0d 61 6c 70 68 61 1a 20 70 61 72 |e. of.alpha. par| 000007a0 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 63 61 6e 1a 20 70 61 73 |ticles. can. pas| 000007b0 73 1a 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 1a 20 74 68 69 6e |s. through. thin| 000007c0 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 73 68 65 65 74 73 2c 20 62 | solid sheets, b| 000007d0 75 74 20 6e 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 61 6c 70 68 61 |ut neither alpha| 000007e0 0d 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 6e 6f 72 20 |.particles. nor | 000007f0 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 |atomic structure| 00000800 20 77 65 72 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 1a 20 61 74 1a | were known. at.| 00000810 20 74 68 65 1a 20 74 69 6d 65 2e 1a 20 48 65 72 | the. time.. Her| 00000820 74 7a 27 73 1a 20 70 75 70 69 6c 0d 4c 65 6e 61 |tz's. pupil.Lena| 00000830 72 64 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 1a 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 |rd found. this p| 00000840 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 |roperty of the r| 00000850 61 79 73 20 76 65 72 79 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 |ays very useful | 00000860 69 6e 20 68 69 73 20 72 65 73 65 61 72 63 68 2c |in his research,| 00000870 20 61 73 20 69 74 0d 65 6e 61 62 6c 65 64 20 74 | as it.enabled t| 00000880 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 74 6f 20 6c 65 61 76 65 |he rays to leave| 00000890 20 74 68 65 20 76 61 63 75 75 6d 20 74 75 62 65 | the vacuum tube| 000008a0 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 20 74 68 69 6e 20 | through a thin | 000008b0 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 69 75 6d 20 77 69 6e 64 6f 77 |aluminium window| 000008c0 2c 0d 69 6e 70 65 6e 65 74 72 61 62 6c 65 20 74 |,.inpenetrable t| 000008d0 6f 20 61 69 72 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 61 |o air but not ca| 000008e0 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 2e 20 4f 6e 63 65 |thode rays. Once| 000008f0 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 | the rays passed| 00000900 20 6f 75 74 73 69 64 65 20 74 68 65 0d 76 61 63 | outside the.vac| 00000910 75 75 6d 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 65 72 65 1a 20 71 |uum they were. q| 00000920 75 69 63 6b 79 1a 20 73 74 6f 70 70 65 64 1a 20 |uicky. stopped. | 00000930 62 79 1a 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 1a 20 |by. collisions. | 00000940 77 69 74 68 20 61 69 72 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c |with air molecul| 00000950 65 73 2c 20 62 75 74 0d 4c 65 6e 61 72 64 20 77 |es, but.Lenard w| 00000960 61 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f |as still able to| 00000970 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 75 73 | make several us| 00000980 65 66 75 6c 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 73 |eful experiments| 00000990 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 6d 2e 20 48 69 73 20 6d 6f | on them. His mo| 000009a0 73 74 0d 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 20 64 69 73 |st.important dis| 000009b0 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 77 61 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 |covery was that | 000009c0 74 68 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 1a 20 76 61 73 74 6c |the. rays. vastl| 000009d0 79 1a 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 64 1a 20 74 68 |y. increased. th| 000009e0 65 1a 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 61 6c 0d 63 6f |e. electrical.co| 000009f0 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 1a 20 6f 66 20 74 |nductivity. of t| 00000a00 68 65 20 61 69 72 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 77 |he air through w| 00000a10 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 65 79 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 |hich they passed| 00000a20 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 |. This not only | 00000a30 70 72 6f 76 69 64 65 64 0d 68 69 6e 74 73 20 61 |provided.hints a| 00000a40 73 1a 20 74 6f 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 6e 61 74 75 |s. to. the. natu| 00000a50 72 65 1a 20 6f 66 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 72 61 79 |re. of. the. ray| 00000a60 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 70 72 6f 76 |s, but also prov| 00000a70 69 64 65 64 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 |ided a new means| 00000a80 20 6f 66 0d 64 65 74 65 63 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 | of.detecting th| 00000a90 65 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 69 6e 67 |em and measuring| 00000aa0 20 74 68 65 69 72 1a 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 74 | their. intensit| 00000ab0 79 2e 0d 09 4c 65 6e 61 72 64 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 |y...Lenard also | 00000ac0 73 74 75 64 69 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 74 65 |studied the atte| 00000ad0 6e 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 1a 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 |nuation. of the | 00000ae0 72 61 79 73 20 6f 6e 20 70 61 73 73 69 6e 67 20 |rays on passing | 00000af0 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 0d 76 61 72 69 6f 75 73 20 |through.various | 00000b00 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 20 72 61 6e 67 69 6e |materials rangin| 00000b10 67 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 6f |g from metals to| 00000b20 1a 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 1a 20 48 69 73 1a 20 63 |. gases.. His. c| 00000b30 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 77 61 73 20 74 68 |onclusion was th| 00000b40 61 74 0d 74 68 65 20 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 61 |at.the fractiona| 00000b50 6c 20 64 72 6f 70 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 |l drop in their | 00000b60 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 74 79 20 77 61 73 20 73 6f |intensity was so| 00000b70 6c 65 6c 79 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f |lely dependent o| 00000b80 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 0d 74 68 |n the mass of.th| 00000b90 65 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 74 68 65 79 20 68 61 |e matter they ha| 00000ba0 64 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 |d passed through| 00000bb0 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 74 20 6f 6e 1a 20 74 68 |, and not on. th| 00000bc0 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 |e type of materi| 00000bd0 61 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 0d 73 68 6f 77 65 64 1a |al. This.showed.| 00000be0 20 74 68 61 74 1a 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 | that. the rays | 00000bf0 63 6f 75 6c 64 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 72 6f 70 61 67 |could not propag| 00000c00 61 74 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 1a |ate in the same.| 00000c10 20 6d 61 6e 6e 65 72 1a 20 61 73 1a 20 6c 69 67 | manner. as. lig| 00000c20 68 74 2c 0d 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 62 6c 6f |ht,.which is blo| 00000c30 63 6b 65 64 1a 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 20 62 79 20 |cked. easily by | 00000c40 73 6f 6d 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 2c 20 |some materials, | 00000c50 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 79 20 74 68 6f 73 65 |but not by those| 00000c60 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 77 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 0d 22 | which we call."| 00000c70 74 72 61 6e 73 70 61 72 65 6e 74 22 2e 20 48 6f |transparent". Ho| 00000c80 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 4c 65 6e 61 72 64 20 72 65 |wever, Lenard re| 00000c90 6d 61 69 6e 65 64 1a 20 75 6e 64 65 74 65 72 72 |mained. undeterr| 00000ca0 65 64 1a 20 66 72 6f 6d 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 76 |ed. from. the. v| 00000cb0 69 65 77 1a 20 74 68 61 74 0d 63 61 74 68 6f 64 |iew. that.cathod| 00000cc0 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 77 61 76 65 |e rays were wave| 00000cd0 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 61 65 74 68 65 72 2e |s in the aether.| 00000ce0 0d 09 49 6e 20 31 38 39 35 2c 20 50 65 72 72 69 |..In 1895, Perri| 00000cf0 6e 20 73 75 63 63 65 65 64 65 64 20 69 6e 1a 20 |n succeeded in. | 00000d00 66 69 6e 61 6c 6c 79 20 70 72 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 |finally proving | 00000d10 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 63 61 |that the rays ca| 00000d20 72 72 69 65 64 0d 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 |rried.an electri| 00000d30 63 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 68 |c charge. This h| 00000d40 61 73 20 62 65 65 6e 1a 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 64 |as been. assumed| 00000d50 1a 20 66 6f 72 1a 20 6d 61 6e 79 20 79 65 61 72 |. for. many year| 00000d60 73 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 62 79 |s, especially by| 00000d70 0d 74 68 6f 73 65 20 66 61 76 6f 75 72 69 6e 67 |.those favouring| 00000d80 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 74 68 | the particle th| 00000d90 65 6f 72 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 62 6f 64 79 |eory, but nobody| 00000da0 20 68 61 64 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 1a | had previously.| 00000db0 20 6d 61 6e 61 67 65 64 20 74 6f 0d 63 6f 6c 6c | managed to.coll| 00000dc0 65 63 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 20 |ect the charge. | 00000dd0 43 72 6f 6f 6b 65 73 20 68 61 64 20 74 72 69 65 |Crookes had trie| 00000de0 64 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 73 6f 2c 20 61 74 1a 20 |d to do so, at. | 00000df0 4d 61 78 77 65 6c 6c 27 73 1a 20 73 75 67 67 65 |Maxwell's. sugge| 00000e00 73 74 69 6f 6e 2c 0d 62 75 74 1a 20 68 61 64 20 |stion,.but. had | 00000e10 6e 6f 74 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 |not found consis| 00000e20 74 65 6e 74 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 2e 20 50 65 |tent results. Pe| 00000e30 72 72 69 6e 27 73 20 61 70 70 61 72 61 74 75 73 |rrin's apparatus| 00000e40 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 64 20 6f 66 20 74 77 | consisted of tw| 00000e50 6f 0d 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 69 63 20 6d 65 74 |o.concentric met| 00000e60 61 6c 20 63 79 6c 69 6e 64 65 72 73 20 70 6c 61 |al cylinders pla| 00000e70 63 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 |ced in the direc| 00000e80 74 20 70 61 74 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 |t path of the ra| 00000e90 79 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 0d 73 74 72 |ys. The rays.str| 00000ea0 75 63 6b 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 6e 65 72 20 63 79 |uck the inner cy| 00000eb0 6c 69 6e 64 65 72 2c 20 67 69 76 69 6e 67 20 69 |linder, giving i| 00000ec0 74 20 61 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 77 68 69 6c |t a charge, whil| 00000ed0 65 20 74 68 65 20 6f 75 74 65 72 20 63 79 69 6e |e the outer cyin| 00000ee0 64 65 72 20 77 61 73 0d 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 |der was.connecte| 00000ef0 64 20 74 6f 20 65 61 72 74 68 2e 20 41 6e 20 65 |d to earth. An e| 00000f00 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 65 20 63 6f 6e 6e |lectroscope conn| 00000f10 65 63 74 65 64 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 68 |ected between th| 00000f20 65 20 63 79 6c 69 6e 64 65 72 73 20 73 68 6f 77 |e cylinders show| 00000f30 65 64 0d 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 1a 20 77 |ed.that there. w| 00000f40 61 73 1a 20 69 6e 64 65 65 64 1a 20 61 20 73 75 |as. indeed. a su| 00000f50 62 73 74 61 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 |bstantial negati| 00000f60 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 61 63 63 75 6d 75 |ve charge accumu| 00000f70 6c 61 74 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 0d 69 6e |lating on the.in| 00000f80 6e 65 72 20 63 79 6c 69 6e 64 65 72 20 77 68 69 |ner cylinder whi| 00000f90 6c 65 20 74 68 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 1a 20 77 65 |le the. rays. we| 00000fa0 72 65 20 73 74 72 69 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 2e 0d |re striking it..| 00000fb0 09 49 74 20 77 61 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 |.It was at this | 00000fc0 73 74 61 67 65 1a 20 74 68 61 74 1a 20 4a 2e 4a |stage. that. J.J| 00000fd0 2e 1a 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 65 6e 74 65 72 |.. Thomson enter| 00000fe0 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 65 6e 65 2e 20 48 65 |ed the scene. He| 00000ff0 20 68 61 64 0d 74 61 6b 65 6e 20 61 20 67 72 65 | had.taken a gre| 00001000 61 74 20 69 6e 74 65 72 65 73 74 20 69 6e 20 74 |at interest in t| 00001010 68 65 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 6f |he experiments o| 00001020 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 74 |f the previous t| 00001030 77 6f 20 64 65 63 61 64 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 0d |wo decades, and.| 00001040 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 6d 61 69 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 |always maintaine| 00001050 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 74 68 6f |d that the catho| 00001060 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 73 74 72 |de rays were str| 00001070 65 61 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 |eams of charged | 00001080 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 0d 48 6f 77 65 76 |particles..Howev| 00001090 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 62 72 65 61 6b 74 68 72 |er, the breakthr| 000010a0 6f 75 67 68 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 73 74 69 6d 75 |ough which stimu| 000010b0 6c 61 74 65 64 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 74 6f |lated Thomson to| 000010c0 20 73 74 61 72 74 1a 20 77 6f 72 6b 1a 20 6f 6e | start. work. on| 000010d0 1a 20 74 68 65 0d 70 72 6f 62 6c 65 6d 1a 20 68 |. the.problem. h| 000010e0 69 6d 73 65 6c 66 1a 20 77 61 73 1a 20 74 68 65 |imself. was. the| 000010f0 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6f 66 20 58 2d | discovery of X-| 00001100 72 61 79 73 20 62 79 20 57 69 6c 68 65 6c 6d 20 |rays by Wilhelm | 00001110 52 6f 6e 74 67 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 31 38 39 35 2e |Rontgen in 1895.| 00001120 0d 54 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 |.The new rays we| 00001130 72 65 1a 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 64 1a 20 62 |re. generated. b| 00001140 79 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 69 6d 70 61 63 74 1a 20 |y. the. impact. | 00001150 6f 66 1a 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 |of. cathode rays| 00001160 20 6f 6e 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 0d 73 75 72 66 | on certain.surf| 00001170 61 63 65 73 2c 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 67 6c |aces, such as gl| 00001180 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 |ass and metals. | 00001190 58 2d 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 63 6c 65 61 |X-rays were clea| 000011a0 72 6c 79 20 6e 6f 74 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 73 61 |rly not. the. sa| 000011b0 6d 65 1a 20 61 73 0d 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 1a 20 |me. as.cathode. | 000011c0 72 61 79 73 2c 1a 20 62 75 74 1a 20 63 65 72 74 |rays,. but. cert| 000011d0 61 69 6e 6c 79 1a 20 73 68 6f 77 65 64 20 73 6f |ainly. showed so| 000011e0 6d 65 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 |me characteristi| 000011f0 63 73 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 |cs in common wit| 00001200 68 0d 74 68 65 6d 2e 20 41 6c 74 68 6f 75 67 68 |h.them. Although| 00001210 20 58 2d 72 61 79 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 1a 20 | X-rays do not. | 00001220 63 61 72 72 79 1a 20 61 6e 79 1a 20 65 6c 65 63 |carry. any. elec| 00001230 74 72 69 63 1a 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 2c 1a 20 |tric. current,. | 00001240 61 6e 64 1a 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 0d 64 65 66 |and. are not.def| 00001250 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 6d 61 67 6e |lected by a magn| 00001260 65 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 74 68 65 79 |etic field, they| 00001270 20 70 65 6e 65 74 72 61 74 65 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 | penetrate alumi| 00001280 6e 69 75 6d 20 73 68 65 65 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 |nium sheets and | 00001290 62 6c 61 63 6b 65 6e 0d 70 68 6f 74 6f 67 72 61 |blacken.photogra| 000012a0 70 68 69 63 20 70 6c 61 74 65 73 20 69 6e 20 6d |phic plates in m| 000012b0 75 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 77 61 79 |uch the same way| 000012c0 20 61 73 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 | as cathode rays| 000012d0 20 64 6f 2e 1a 20 49 6e 20 61 64 64 69 74 69 6f | do.. In additio| 000012e0 6e 2c 0d 61 73 1a 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 1a 20 |n,.as. Thomson. | 000012f0 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 2c 1a 20 58 2d 72 |discovered,. X-r| 00001300 61 79 73 1a 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 67 |ays. cause the g| 00001310 61 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 77 68 69 63 68 |as through which| 00001320 20 74 68 65 79 20 70 61 73 73 20 74 6f 0d 62 65 | they pass to.be| 00001330 63 6f 6d 65 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 |come an electric| 00001340 61 6c 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 6f 72 2e 20 54 68 |al conductor. Th| 00001350 65 1a 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 61 6c 1a 20 70 |e. electrical. p| 00001360 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 |roperties of gas| 00001370 65 73 20 77 61 73 20 61 0d 73 75 62 6a 65 63 74 |es was a.subject| 00001380 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 61 64 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 | that had always| 00001390 20 69 6e 74 65 72 65 73 74 65 64 20 54 68 6f 6d | interested Thom| 000013a0 73 6f 6e 2c 20 73 6f 1a 20 68 65 1a 20 69 6d 6d |son, so. he. imm| 000013b0 65 64 69 61 74 65 6c 79 1a 20 73 65 74 20 61 62 |ediately. set ab| 000013c0 6f 75 74 0d 69 6e 76 65 73 74 69 67 61 74 69 6e |out.investigatin| 000013d0 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 |g this property | 000013e0 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 58 2d 72 61 79 73 2e 0d 09 |of the X-rays...| 000013f0 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 20 74 68 |Thomson found th| 00001400 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 |at the conductiv| 00001410 69 74 69 65 73 1a 20 6f 66 1a 20 67 61 73 65 73 |ities. of. gases| 00001420 1a 20 64 69 64 1a 20 6e 6f 74 20 69 6e 63 72 65 |. did. not incre| 00001430 61 73 65 0d 74 68 65 69 72 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 |ase.their full v| 00001440 61 6c 75 65 20 69 6d 6d 65 64 69 61 74 65 6c 79 |alue immediately| 00001450 20 77 68 65 6e 20 58 2d 72 61 79 73 20 73 74 61 | when X-rays sta| 00001460 72 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 70 61 73 73 1a 20 74 68 |rted to pass. th| 00001470 72 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 2c 0d 6e |rough the gas,.n| 00001480 6f 72 20 64 69 64 20 74 68 65 79 20 64 72 6f 70 |or did they drop| 00001490 20 74 6f 20 7a 65 72 6f 20 69 6d 6d 65 64 69 61 | to zero immedia| 000014a0 74 65 6c 79 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 58 2d |tely when the X-| 000014b0 72 61 79 73 1a 20 77 65 72 65 1a 20 73 77 69 74 |rays. were. swit| 000014c0 63 68 65 64 20 6f 66 66 2e 0d 54 68 69 73 1a 1a |ched off..This..| 000014d0 20 73 75 67 67 65 73 74 65 64 1a 20 74 68 61 74 | suggested. that| 000014e0 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 6f |. the. conductio| 000014f0 6e 1a 20 77 61 73 1a 20 6e 6f 74 1a 20 63 61 75 |n. was. not. cau| 00001500 73 65 64 1a 20 62 79 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 58 2d |sed. by. the. X-| 00001510 72 61 79 73 0d 74 68 65 6d 73 65 6c 76 65 73 2c |rays.themselves,| 00001520 20 62 75 74 20 62 79 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 73 65 63 | but by some sec| 00001530 6f 6e 64 61 72 79 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 2c 20 70 |ondary effect, p| 00001540 65 72 68 61 70 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 |erhaps the produ| 00001550 63 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 0d |cion of charged.| 00001560 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 69 6e 20 74 68 |particles. in th| 00001570 65 20 67 61 73 2e 20 54 6f 20 74 65 73 74 20 74 |e gas. To test t| 00001580 68 69 73 20 73 75 70 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c |his supposition,| 00001590 20 68 65 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 67 | he passed the g| 000015a0 61 73 20 72 61 70 69 64 6c 79 0d 74 68 72 6f 75 |as rapidly.throu| 000015b0 67 68 20 61 1a 20 67 6c 61 73 73 20 77 6f 6f 6c |gh a. glass wool| 000015c0 20 66 69 6c 74 65 72 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 | filter after th| 000015d0 65 20 58 2d 72 61 79 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 73 77 |e X-rays were sw| 000015e0 69 74 63 68 65 64 20 6f 66 66 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 |itched off, and | 000015f0 66 6f 75 6e 64 0d 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 |found.that the c| 00001600 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 1a 20 66 65 6c |onductivity. fel| 00001610 6c 1a 20 74 6f 1a 20 7a 65 72 6f 1a 20 69 6d 6d |l. to. zero. imm| 00001620 65 64 69 61 74 65 6c 79 20 2d 20 65 76 69 64 65 |ediately - evide| 00001630 6e 74 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 |ntly the charged| 00001640 0d 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 68 61 64 20 62 |.particles had b| 00001650 65 65 6e 20 66 69 6c 74 65 72 65 64 20 6f 75 74 |een filtered out| 00001660 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 |. Similarly, the| 00001670 1a 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 1a 20 |. conductivity. | 00001680 77 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 64 72 6f 70 0d 72 61 70 69 |would. drop.rapi| 00001690 64 6c 79 1a 20 74 6f 20 7a 65 72 6f 20 69 66 20 |dly. to zero if | 000016a0 61 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 |a strong electri| 000016b0 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 20 77 61 73 20 61 70 70 6c |c field was appl| 000016c0 69 65 64 2c 20 74 68 75 73 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 69 |ied, thus removi| 000016d0 6e 67 20 61 6e 79 0d 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 70 |ng any.charged p| 000016e0 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 74 6f 1a 20 74 68 |articles. to. th| 000016f0 65 1a 20 73 69 64 65 1a 20 6f 66 1a 20 74 68 65 |e. side. of. the| 00001700 1a 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 2e 1a 20 54 68 |. container.. Th| 00001710 65 20 69 64 65 61 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 |e idea of charge| 00001720 64 0d 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 63 61 72 72 |d.particles carr| 00001730 79 69 6e 67 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 73 20 74 68 |ying currents th| 00001740 72 6f 75 67 68 20 67 61 73 65 73 1a 20 77 61 73 |rough gases. was| 00001750 1a 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 69 64 65 61 |. not a new idea| 00001760 20 2d 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 6c 79 0d 74 68 65 | - certainly.the| 00001770 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 69 6f | existence of io| 00001780 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 65 6c 65 |ns in liquid ele| 00001790 63 74 72 6f 6c 79 74 65 73 1a 20 68 61 64 20 6c |ctrolytes. had l| 000017a0 6f 6e 67 20 62 65 65 6e 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 2e 20 |ong been known. | 000017b0 42 75 74 20 74 68 65 0d 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 |But the.experime| 000017c0 6e 74 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e |nts made Thomson| 000017d0 20 77 6f 6e 64 65 72 20 68 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 | wonder how the | 000017e0 61 69 72 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 1a 20 63 |air molecules. c| 000017f0 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 20 73 70 6c 69 74 20 69 6e |ould be split in| 00001800 74 6f 0d 69 6f 6e 73 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 58 |to.ions by the X| 00001810 2d 72 61 79 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 77 68 65 72 65 |-rays, and where| 00001820 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 63 61 6d | the charges cam| 00001830 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 2e 20 49 74 20 6d 61 79 20 68 |e from. It may h| 00001840 61 76 65 20 62 65 65 6e 20 77 69 74 68 0d 61 6e |ave been with.an| 00001850 20 65 79 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 73 77 65 72 69 6e | eye to answerin| 00001860 67 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 71 75 65 73 74 69 6f 6e |g these question| 00001870 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 6d 65 6e |s that he commen| 00001880 63 65 64 1a 20 77 6f 72 6b 1a 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 |ced. work. on th| 00001890 65 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 0d 6f 66 1a 20 63 61 74 |e nature.of. cat| 000018a0 68 6f 64 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 2c 1a 20 66 6f 72 |hode. rays,. for| 000018b0 1a 20 68 65 1a 20 6b 6e 65 77 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 |. he. knew from | 000018c0 4c 65 6e 61 72 64 27 73 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 74 68 |Lenard's work th| 000018d0 61 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 1a 20 |at these. rays. | 000018e0 74 6f 6f 0d 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 64 1a 20 74 |too.increased. t| 000018f0 68 65 1a 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 |he. conductivity| 00001900 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 1a 20 | of gases, and. | 00001910 68 65 1a 20 77 61 73 1a 20 61 6c 6d 6f 73 74 1a |he. was. almost.| 00001920 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 1a 20 74 68 61 74 0d 63 | certain. that.c| 00001930 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 |harged particles| 00001940 20 77 65 72 65 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 64 2e 0d | were involved..| 00001950 09 42 79 20 31 38 39 35 20 69 74 20 77 61 73 20 |.By 1895 it was | 00001960 75 6e 69 76 65 72 73 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 63 63 65 |universally acce| 00001970 70 74 65 64 2c 20 65 76 65 6e 20 62 79 20 74 68 |pted, even by th| 00001980 6f 73 65 20 77 68 6f 20 66 61 76 6f 75 72 65 64 |ose who favoured| 00001990 20 74 68 65 0d 77 61 76 65 20 74 68 6f 65 72 79 | the.wave thoery| 000019a0 2c 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 70 |, that charged p| 000019b0 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 77 65 72 65 1a 20 |articles. were. | 000019c0 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 64 1a 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 |released. from t| 000019d0 68 65 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 69 6e 20 61 0d |he cathode in a.| 000019e0 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 20 74 75 62 65 |cathode ray tube| 000019f0 2e 20 50 65 72 72 69 6e 27 73 20 65 78 70 65 72 |. Perrin's exper| 00001a00 69 6d 65 6e 74 20 68 61 64 20 70 72 6f 76 65 6e |iment had proven| 00001a10 20 74 68 69 73 20 66 61 69 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e | this fairly con| 00001a20 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 0d 48 6f 77 65 76 |clusively..Howev| 00001a30 65 72 2c 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 69 |er, some physici| 00001a40 73 74 73 20 73 75 67 67 65 73 74 65 64 20 74 68 |sts suggested th| 00001a50 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 |at the cathode r| 00001a60 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 6d 73 65 6c 76 65 73 20 77 |ays themselves w| 00001a70 65 72 65 20 61 0d 73 65 70 61 72 61 74 65 1a 20 |ere a.separate. | 00001a80 70 68 65 6e 6f 6d 65 6e 6f 6e 1a 20 69 6e 1a 20 |phenomenon. in. | 00001a90 74 68 65 20 61 65 74 68 65 72 20 6f 63 63 75 72 |the aether occur| 00001aa0 72 69 6e 67 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 1a 20 73 61 6d |ring at the. sam| 00001ab0 65 1a 20 74 69 6d 65 1a 20 61 73 1a 20 74 68 65 |e. time. as. the| 00001ac0 0d 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 |.emission of par| 00001ad0 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 20 41 73 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 |ticles. 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Per| 00001bf0 72 69 6e 27 73 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 |rin's experiment| 00001c00 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 0d 73 6c 69 67 68 74 20 6d | with a.slight m| 00001c10 6f 64 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 49 6e 73 |odification. Ins| 00001c20 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 70 6c 61 63 69 6e 67 20 |tead of placing | 00001c30 74 68 65 20 74 77 6f 1a 20 63 79 6c 69 6e 64 65 |the two. cylinde| 00001c40 72 73 1a 20 69 6e 1a 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 72 65 |rs. in. the dire| 00001c50 63 74 0d 70 61 74 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 |ct.path of the r| 00001c60 61 79 73 2c 20 68 65 1a 20 6d 61 64 65 1a 20 61 |ays, he. made. a| 00001c70 1a 20 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 1a 20 74 75 62 65 1a |. special. tube.| 00001c80 20 77 68 65 72 65 1a 20 74 68 61 1a 20 72 61 79 | where. tha. ray| 00001c90 73 1a 20 68 61 64 1a 20 74 6f 20 62 65 0d 64 65 |s. had. to be.de| 00001ca0 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 1a 20 62 79 1a 20 61 1a 20 |flected. by. a. | 00001cb0 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 |magnet if they w| 00001cc0 65 72 65 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 63 6f 6c 6c 65 63 |ere to be collec| 00001cd0 74 65 64 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 73 65 |ted. In the abse| 00001ce0 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 0d 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 |nce of a.magneti| 00001cf0 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 |c field, the ray| 00001d00 73 1a 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 |s. would produce| 00001d10 20 61 20 70 68 6f 73 70 68 6f 72 65 73 63 65 6e | a phosphorescen| 00001d20 74 20 73 70 6f 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 67 6c |t spot on the gl| 00001d30 61 73 73 0d 64 69 72 65 63 74 6c 79 20 6f 70 70 |ass.directly opp| 00001d40 6f 73 69 74 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 |osite the cathod| 00001d50 65 2e 20 48 65 1a 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 74 68 |e. He. would. th| 00001d60 65 6e 1a 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 1a 20 74 68 65 |en. deflect. the| 00001d70 1a 20 72 61 79 73 20 69 6e 20 6d 61 6e 79 0d 64 |. rays in many.d| 00001d80 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 1a 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 |ifferent. direct| 00001d90 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 6d 61 67 6e |ions with a magn| 00001da0 65 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 |et, and follow t| 00001db0 68 65 20 70 68 6f 73 70 68 6f 72 65 73 63 65 6e |he phosphorescen| 00001dc0 74 20 73 70 6f 74 20 61 73 0d 69 74 20 6d 6f 76 |t spot as.it mov| 00001dd0 65 64 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 67 6c |ed around the gl| 00001de0 61 73 73 2e 20 48 65 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 61 |ass. He found, a| 00001df0 73 20 68 65 20 65 78 70 65 63 74 65 64 2c 20 74 |s he expected, t| 00001e00 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 73 |hat the electros| 00001e10 63 6f 70 65 0d 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 64 20 62 |cope.connected b| 00001e20 65 74 77 65 65 6e 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 79 6c |etween. the. cyl| 00001e30 69 6e 64 65 72 73 1a 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 6f |inders. would. o| 00001e40 6e 6c 79 1a 20 69 6e 64 69 63 61 74 65 20 61 20 |nly. indicate a | 00001e50 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 62 75 69 6c 64 2d 75 70 0d |charge build-up.| 00001e60 77 68 69 6c 65 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 |while then the s| 00001e70 70 6f 74 20 64 69 73 73 61 70 65 61 72 65 64 20 |pot dissapeared | 00001e80 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 79 6c 69 6e 64 |into the. cylind| 00001e90 65 72 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 65 6d 6f 6e 73 74 |er. This demonst| 00001ea0 72 61 74 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 0d 50 65 72 72 69 |rated that.Perri| 00001eb0 6e 27 73 1a 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 1a 20 70 61 |n's. charged. pa| 00001ec0 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 65 |rticles. followe| 00001ed0 64 1a 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 1a 20 74 68 65 1a |d. exactly. the.| 00001ee0 20 73 61 6d 65 1a 20 70 61 74 68 1a 1a 20 61 73 | same. path.. as| 00001ef0 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 0d 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 1a 20 |. the..cathode. | 00001f00 72 61 79 73 1a 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 69 6e 67 20 |rays. producing | 00001f10 74 68 65 20 70 68 6f 73 70 68 6f 72 65 73 63 65 |the phosphoresce| 00001f20 6e 63 65 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 20 74 68 65 |nce, however the| 00001f30 79 20 77 65 72 65 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 |y were deflected| 00001f40 2e 0d 41 63 63 6f 72 64 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 54 |..According to T| 00001f50 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 77 61 73 |homson, this was| 00001f60 20 73 75 66 66 69 63 69 65 6e 74 20 70 72 6f 6f | sufficient proo| 00001f70 66 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 |f that the rays | 00001f80 77 65 72 65 20 69 6e 20 66 61 63 74 0d 63 68 61 |were in fact.cha| 00001f90 72 67 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 0d |rged particles..| 00001fa0
EltronBKP/ElectronB.m0
EltronBKP/ElectronB.m1
EltronBKP/ElectronB.m2
EltronBKP/ElectronB.m4
EltronBKP/ElectronB.m5
.