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Apple][e/PD/BOB/ARMBOB/doc/Ref/Types
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File contents
ArmBob v.2.1 Reference GCW 29/11/94
----------------- TYPES ---------------
Types
-----
Armbob is an implicitly typed language. There are no type declarations.
Variables can be re-assigned irrespective of type. The function 'typeof'
returns the integer code that determines the type of its argument.
Synonyms for these codes are provided (see Ref.Keywords). Many functions
and operators can take arguments of more than one type. For example,
+ denotes concatenation of strings, addition of characters to strings,
and addition of integers and reals, while << can denote both the shift
left operator and the output operator of C++.
The Armbob datatypes are given below. The ones in angle brackets are
for Armbob's internal use:
0 NIL - just the value nil, default for undefined things
1 <CLASS - *internal type* >
2 OBJECT - class instances, with private data
3 VECTOR - arrays of arbitrary things
4 INTEGER - 32-bit, includes Boolean values and characters
5 STRING - byte arrays
6 BYTECODE - Bob functions, stack-machine code
7 CODE - Built in functions, ARM machine code
8 <DICTIONARY - *internal type* >
9 <VARIABLE - *internal type* >
10 IOSTREAM - channels for input and output
11 REAL - single precision floating point numbers
As far as the programmer is concerned a variable or expression may
refer to:
nil,
an instance object of a class,
a vector,
an integer,
a floating point number,
a string,
a function,
an input/output stream.
NIL
---
The value 'nil' corresponds to 'void' in C. It is the default value
for unassigned variables and the value returned by functions with no
return expression.
CLASS
-----
For the full syntax of class definitions see Ref.Syntax and the section
for 'class' in Ref.Built_in.
Only class definitions and function definitions can appear at the
top level, and these are the only things that can so appear.
A class definition must appear before instance objects for it are
defined.
Classes are determined by:
an optional "base class" whose data and methods are inherited,
private data,
static data,
private methods,
static methods.
Static data and methods are common to all the instance objects of the
class. Private data and methods have separate instantiations for each
instance object. Data can only be referenced via methods. A class's
data must be declared in the class's definition, but its methods do not.
"Method" is really jargon for a special sort of function. Non-static
methods have an invisible local variable 'this' which refers to the
instance object that they belong to. A method definition resembles a
function definition prefixed by its class name followed by '::'. The
operator -> joins an instance object to a method of its class to
produce an actual function.
OBJECT
------
Objects of a class are created with statements of the form
<object_name> = new <class_name>([ <data_values> ])
The general form for using a method is
<object_expression>-><method>([<arguments>])
For example, one might have
mywindow->open_window(position,size)
for an instance object called 'mywindow' belonging to a class with
a method called 'open_window'. The expressions 'position' and 'size'
might be vectors, i.e. complex data-types.
For every class a method must be defined, with the same name as the
class, for defining new instance objects. This follows the conventions
of C++.
VECTOR
------
Vectors are arrays of fixed size. Their components can have any type.
They can be created by statements of the form
<vector_name> = newvector(<size>);
which creates a new vector with <size> components which are all nil.
Alternatively, the expression
vector { <expr1>; ...... <exprn>; }
returns a new vector with components <expr1> ... <exprn>. There must
be at least one component and not more than 255 for this construction.
v = vector { x; y; z; } ;
is equivalent to
v = newvector(3);
v[0] = x;
v[1] = y;
v[2] = z;
The function sizeof() returns the size of its argument. A vector v has
components v[i] where 0<=i<sizeof(v).
Arrays are only 1-dimensional. To create an mxn matrix, for example,
we could define
newmatrix(m,n)
{
local matrix,i;
matrix = newvector(m);
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
matrix[i] = newvector(n);
return matrix;
}
and matrix[i][j] will be the element in the i-th row and j-th column.
This has the advantage that the i-th row is matrix[i]. When a vector
is first created its components all have the value nil.
It is permissible for a vector to be a component of itself.
An expression of the form
enum { <var1>, ... , <varn> }
returns the integer n as result and assigns the values 0, 1, .. (n-1) to
the variables <var1>, ... , <varn> in order. This can be used to abstract
vector indices.
For example
_3_vector = enum { x, y, z };
v = newvector(_3_vector);
v[x] = v[y] = v[z] = 0.0;
INTEGER
-------
Integers must be in the range from -2147483648 to 2147483647. They
may also be used in hexadecimal form, with a '&' as prefix, with lower
case a,b,c,d,e,f denoting 10,11,12,13,14,15, in the range from
&00000000 to &ffffffff.
As in C, characters are simply integers in the range 0-255. Single
characters are enclosed in single forward quote characters ('). So
'A' also denotes the integer 65, for example. The character '\' is used
as an escape character, with '\n', '\t' denoting the newline and tab
characters.
In conditional expressions, any nonzero integer is taken to represent
truth, and zero or nil as falsity. TRUE is a synonym for 1 and FALSE
is a synonym for 0. See Ref.Keywords for a list of numerical synonyms.
It is�also possible to use integers as addresses.
REAL
----
Single precision floating point numbers are characterised by the
presence of a decimal point. Thus x = 0; will make x an integer, but
x = 0.0; will make x a real. Reals can be multiplied or divided by
either reals or integers and the result is a real. So an integer can
be converted to a real by multiplying it by 1.0. The function floor(x)
returns the greatest integer not greater than the real number x.
You may not add or subtract a real with an integer. The standard real
functions
sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan, exp, log, sqrt
are built in. The value pi is also built in.
STRING
------
Strings are arrays of bytes. They can be created either by a command
of the form
<string_name> = newstring(<size>);
which creates a string of ASCII nulls, of size <size>, or by using
literal strings. These are are enclosed in double quotes (") and may
not contain the double quote character. The function 'sizeof' can also
be used with strings.
The component characters of a string s are
s[0], s[1], ........ s[sizeof(s)-1]
As in Basic, strings may be concatenated using the operators + and +=.
So
s += t
is equivalent to s = s + t.
In fact string handling in Armbob resembles Basic rather than C. The
operator + can also be used to add characters to strings. This operator
associates to the left, so that
33+33+""
is the 1-element string "B", while
""+33+33
is the 2-element string "!!".
The function val() will convert as much of a string into a number as
it can. So val(" +10x") and val("&a") will both return 10.
The function input returns an input string, not a number. Leading
spaces are not removed.
The comparison operators
==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
can be used with strings as well as numbers. String or number
expressions may be used after the keyword 'case' in switch statements.
FUNCTIONS
---------
From the programmer's point of view built-in functions and user defined
functions behave in the same way. See Ref.Built_in for details of
built-in functions. Function definitions must appear only at the
top level. They cannot appear within function definitions or within
class definitions. Every program must have one function called 'main'
defined. This determines the entry point for the program.
Functions can be the values of variables. Note that the parenthesized
list of formal parameters following the function name in a function
definition is not part of the function name itself. Functions can be
returned as values of functions.
IOSTREAM
--------
The following function, to type out the contents of a file, illustrates
how iostreams are opened and closed.
typefile(filename)
{
local fp,c;
if (fp = fopen(filename,"r"))
{
while ((c = getc(fp)) != EOF)
putc(c,stdout);
fclose(fp);
}
}
EOF is a synonym for -1, the end of file value. The following iostreams
are built in:
stdin The standard input file pointer
stdout The standard output file pointer
stderr The standard error file pointer
The following iostream functions are built in:
fopen(name,mode) iostream Opens a file (returns a file pointer)
fclose(fp) nil Closes an iostream
getc(fp) integer Gets a character from an iostream
putc(ch,fp) nil Writes a character to an iostream
print(x) nil Prints an object to stdout
The mode variable can take the values "r" (read), "w" (write) and
"a" (append).
The print function can take many arguments, separated by commas. These
arguments can have different types, but only strings and numbers are
generally useful.
The expression
fp << s
will output a string s to the iostream fp. The value of this expression
is fp, and << associates to the left, so that
fp << s1 << s2 .....
is equivalent to
fp << (s1 + s2 + ...... )
----------- END ------------- 00000000 41 72 6d 42 6f 62 20 76 2e 32 2e 31 20 52 65 66 |ArmBob v.2.1 Ref|
00000010 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |erence |
00000020 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | |
00000030 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 43 57 20 32 39 2f 31 31 2f | GCW 29/11/|
00000040 39 34 0a 0a 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2d 2d 2d |94.. ---|
00000050 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 20 54 |-------------- T|
00000060 59 50 45 53 20 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d |YPES -----------|
00000070 2d 2d 2d 2d 0a 0a 54 79 70 65 73 0a 2d 2d 2d 2d |----..Types.----|
00000080 2d 0a 0a 41 72 6d 62 6f 62 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 |-..Armbob is an |
00000090 69 6d 70 6c 69 63 69 74 6c 79 20 74 79 70 65 64 |implicitly typed|
000000a0 20 6c 61 6e 67 75 61 67 65 2e 20 54 68 65 72 65 | language. There|
000000b0 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 20 74 79 70 65 20 64 65 63 | are no type dec|
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00000120 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 20 63 6f 64 65 20 74 68 | integer code th|
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00000150 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 0a 53 79 6e 6f 6e 79 6d |gument. .Synonym|
00000160 73 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 63 6f 64 65 |s for these code|
00000170 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 6f 76 69 64 65 64 20 28 |s are provided (|
00000180 73 65 65 20 52 65 66 2e 4b 65 79 77 6f 72 64 73 |see Ref.Keywords|
00000190 29 2e 20 4d 61 6e 79 20 66 75 6e 63 74 69 6f 6e |). Many function|
000001a0 73 20 0a 61 6e 64 20 6f 70 65 72 61 74 6f 72 73 |s .and operators|
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000001e0 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 0a 2b 20 64 65 6e 6f 74 |xample, .+ denot|
000001f0 65 73 20 63 6f 6e 63 61 74 65 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e |es concatenation|
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00000210 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 |ition of charact|
00000220 65 72 73 20 74 6f 20 73 74 72 69 6e 67 73 2c 20 |ers to strings, |
00000230 0a 61 6e 64 20 61 64 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 |.and addition of|
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00000270 65 20 73 68 69 66 74 20 0a 6c 65 66 74 20 6f 70 |e shift .left op|
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00000290 75 74 70 75 74 20 6f 70 65 72 61 74 6f 72 20 6f |utput operator o|
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000002e0 62 72 61 63 6b 65 74 73 20 61 72 65 0a 66 6f 72 |brackets are.for|
000002f0 20 41 72 6d 62 6f 62 27 73 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6e | Armbob's intern|
00000300 61 6c 20 75 73 65 3a 0a 0a 30 20 20 20 4e 49 4c |al use:..0 NIL|
00000310 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2d 20 6a 75 73 74 20 74 | - just t|
00000320 68 65 20 76 61 6c 75 65 20 6e 69 6c 2c 20 64 65 |he value nil, de|
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