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EltronBKP/ElectronD
This website contains an archive of files for the Acorn Electron, BBC Micro, Acorn Archimedes, Commodore 16 and Commodore 64 computers, which Dominic Ford has rescued from his private collection of floppy disks and cassettes.
Some of these files were originally commercial releases in the 1980s and 1990s, but they are now widely available online. I assume that copyright over them is no longer being asserted. If you own the copyright and would like files to be removed, please contact me.
| Tape/disk: | Home » Personal collection » Acorn ADFS disks » Electron » Pixel_map.ADF |
| Filename: | EltronBKP/ElectronD |
| Read OK: | ✔ |
| File size: | 149C bytes |
| Load address: | D6576 |
| Exec address: | 1010000 |
File contents
�.........*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.......*.<
The second method used by Thomson to obtain values for m/e involved
the newly discovered phenomenon of the deflection of cathode rays by an
electric field. This was probably the most famous experiment he ever
devised. The trick was to apply both electric and magnetic fields at the
same time, in such a way that the two forces on the rays would exactly
balance each other. In this situation the deflection of the rays woud be
zero. This is a common technique of measurement in physics, since it is
much easier to determine when a deflection or velocity is exactly zero,
than to measure a finite quantity.
When a particle with charge e moves at speed v perpendicular to a
magnetic field B, the magnetic force acting on it has a magnitude of
F = Bev
m
and is directed perpendicular to both the field and the direction of
motion. When the same particle travels perpendicular to an electric field
E, the electric force has a magnitude of
F = Ee
e
and is directed parallel to the electric field. For these two forces to
balance, the electric and magnetic fields must be perpendicular to each
other, and we must have:
Bev = Ee
E
Hence, v = -
B
Again, he already knew the value mv/e from the magnetic deflection,
so he could use the measured value of v to find the mass:charge ratio m/e.
The results from this measurement are also tabulated in the Philosophical
Magazine. These values for m/e are consistent with those from the previous
experiment, and have much smaller random errors than the latter.
It seemed that there were two possible explanations for the
mass:charge ratio of these particles being so much smaller than that of
any known particle. Either their charge was very much graeter than that of
the hydrogen ion, or their mass was very much less. The hydrogen ion was
thought to be a good reference point, since it had the smallest
mass:charge ratio previously encountered and was known to be a charge
carrier in liquid electrolytes. Thomson guessed immediately that the
main reason for the low m/e must be the small mass of the particles, since
they were known to pass through solid aluminium quite easily.
This led him to the uncomfortable conclusion that these particles
must be many times lighter than the smallest known atom. Schuster had once
come to a similar answer and abandoned his reasoning immediately, but
Thomson was willing to consider the idea seriously. He had shown from his
measurements that the mass:charge ratio of the particles was always the
same regardless of the gas in the discharge tube, and the material of the
cathode. This suggested that the new particles were present in all matter,
regardless of chemical composition. It had previously been assumed that
each chemical element is composed of its own type of atoms, which are
completely indivisible. Hence the gases nitrogen and oxygen were believed
to contain no particles in common, even at the deepest level of the atom.
This theory was no longer tenable in view of Thomson's discovery, so he
wasted no time in suggesting that the new particles, or "corpuscles" as he
called them, were a universal constituent of all atoms. In the intense
electric field around a cathode, the corpuscles in some of the gas
molecules or metal atoms would break free and be accelerated away in the
form of cathode rays. Some chemists had previously suggested the existence
of such a building block inside the atom, but they always had larger
particles such as hydrogen atoms in mind, and never found any supporting
evidence for their theories.
(explanation of Lenard's attenuation expt?)
At first, Thomson thought that the negative charge of the electron
was greater than the positive charge of the hydrogen ion. Although this
would help to explain the low m/e ratio, it seems odd to suggest that
the charge of the negative corpuscle should be larger than that of its
undiscoverred positive counterpart. This would place severe restrictions
on their arrangement in atoms, since the total charge of the positive and
negative components must always be zero. He explains his reasoning in the
Philosophical Magazine:
"In the molecule of HCl, for example, I picture the components of
the hydrogen atoms as held together by a great number of tubes of
electrostatic force; the components of the chlorine atom are similarly
held together, while only one stray tube bind the hydrogen atom to the
chlorine atom."
This may have been an attempt to explain why it is so much easier
to split an HCl molecule into two ions than to break an atom into
individual corpuscles. If this were not the case, then atoms of one
element would break apart and reform to make another. Nowadays we explain
this in terms of the strong nuclear force, which does effectively form one
stable corpuscle (the nucleus) with a high charge.
Soon afterwards Thomson abandoned this idea, realising that the
negative charge of a corpuscle is equal to the positive charge of a
hydrogen ion.
00000000 81 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |..........*.....| 00000010 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e |..*.......*.....| * 00000040 2e 2e 2a 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2a 2e 3c 0d 09 54 |..*.......*.<..T| 00000050 68 65 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 6d 65 74 68 6f 64 |he second method| 00000060 20 75 73 65 64 20 62 79 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e | used by Thomson| 00000070 20 74 6f 20 6f 62 74 61 69 6e 20 76 61 6c 75 65 | to obtain value| 00000080 73 20 66 6f 72 20 6d 2f 65 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 |s for m/e involv| 00000090 65 64 0d 74 68 65 20 6e 65 77 6c 79 20 64 69 73 |ed.the newly dis| 000000a0 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 70 68 65 6e 6f 6d 65 6e |covered phenomen| 000000b0 6f 6e 20 6f 66 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 64 65 66 6c |on of. the. defl| 000000c0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 1a 20 6f 66 20 63 61 74 68 6f |ection. of catho| 000000d0 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 20 62 79 20 61 6e 0d 65 6c |de rays by an.el| 000000e0 65 63 74 72 69 63 1a 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2e 1a 20 |ectric. field.. | 000000f0 54 68 69 73 1a 20 77 61 73 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 |This. was probab| 00000100 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 66 61 6d 6f |ly the most famo| 00000110 75 73 1a 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 1a 20 |us. experiment. | 00000120 68 65 1a 20 65 76 65 72 0d 64 65 76 69 73 65 64 |he. ever.devised| 00000130 2e 20 54 68 65 20 74 72 69 63 6b 20 77 61 73 1a |. The trick was.| 00000140 20 74 6f 1a 20 61 70 70 6c 79 20 62 6f 74 68 20 | to. apply both | 00000150 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 67 |electric and mag| 00000160 6e 65 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 73 20 61 74 20 |netic fields at | 00000170 74 68 65 0d 73 61 6d 65 20 74 69 6d 65 2c 20 69 |the.same time, i| 00000180 6e 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 20 77 61 79 1a 20 74 68 |n such a way. th| 00000190 61 74 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 74 77 6f 1a 20 66 6f |at. the. two. fo| 000001a0 72 63 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 79 73 |rces on the rays| 000001b0 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 0d 62 | would exactly.b| 000001c0 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 20 65 61 63 68 20 6f 74 68 65 |alance each othe| 000001d0 72 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 73 69 74 75 61 |r. In this situa| 000001e0 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 |tion the deflect| 000001f0 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 1a 20 72 61 79 73 |ion of the. rays| 00000200 1a 20 77 6f 75 64 20 62 65 0d 7a 65 72 6f 2e 1a |. woud be.zero..| 00000210 20 54 68 69 73 1a 20 69 73 1a 20 61 20 63 6f 6d | This. is. a com| 00000220 6d 6f 6e 20 74 65 63 68 6e 69 71 75 65 20 6f 66 |mon technique of| 00000230 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 | measurement in | 00000240 70 68 79 73 69 63 73 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 20 69 |physics, since i| 00000250 74 20 69 73 0d 6d 75 63 68 20 65 61 73 69 65 72 |t is.much easier| 00000260 20 74 6f 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 1a 20 77 | to determine. w| 00000270 68 65 6e 1a 20 61 1a 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 69 |hen. a. deflecti| 00000280 6f 6e 20 6f 72 20 76 65 6c 6f 63 69 74 79 20 69 |on or velocity i| 00000290 73 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 7a 65 72 6f 2c 0d |s exactly zero,.| 000002a0 74 68 61 6e 1a 20 74 6f 1a 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 |than. to. measur| 000002b0 65 1a 20 61 1a 20 66 69 6e 69 74 65 1a 20 71 75 |e. a. finite. qu| 000002c0 61 6e 74 69 74 79 2e 0d 09 57 68 65 6e 20 61 20 |antity...When a | 000002d0 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 |particle with ch| 000002e0 61 72 67 65 1a 20 65 1a 20 6d 6f 76 65 73 20 61 |arge. e. moves a| 000002f0 74 20 73 70 65 65 64 20 76 20 70 65 72 70 65 6e |t speed v perpen| 00000300 64 69 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 61 0d 6d 61 67 |dicular to a.mag| 00000310 6e 65 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 20 42 2c 20 74 |netic field B, t| 00000320 68 65 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 66 6f 72 63 |he magnetic forc| 00000330 65 20 61 63 74 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 20 69 74 20 68 |e acting on it h| 00000340 61 73 20 61 20 6d 61 67 6e 69 74 75 64 65 20 6f |as a magnitude o| 00000350 66 0d 09 09 20 20 20 20 46 20 3d 09 42 65 76 0d |f... F =.Bev.| 00000360 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | | 00000370 20 20 20 20 6d 0d 61 6e 64 1a 20 69 73 20 64 69 | m.and. is di| 00000380 72 65 63 74 65 64 20 70 65 72 70 65 6e 64 69 63 |rected perpendic| 00000390 75 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 62 6f 74 68 20 74 68 65 |ular to both the| 000003a0 1a 20 66 69 65 6c 64 1a 20 61 6e 64 1a 20 74 68 |. field. and. th| 000003b0 65 1a 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 1a 20 6f 66 |e. direction. of| 000003c0 0d 6d 6f 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 57 68 65 6e 1a 20 74 |.motion. When. t| 000003d0 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 |he same particle| 000003e0 20 74 72 61 76 65 6c 73 20 70 65 72 70 65 6e 64 | travels perpend| 000003f0 69 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 |icular to an ele| 00000400 63 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 0d 45 2c 20 74 |ctric field.E, t| 00000410 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 66 6f 72 63 |he electric forc| 00000420 65 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6d 61 67 6e 69 74 75 64 |e has a magnitud| 00000430 65 20 6f 66 0d 09 09 20 20 20 20 46 20 3d 20 45 |e of... F = E| 00000440 65 0d 09 09 20 20 20 20 20 65 0d 61 6e 64 20 69 |e... e.and i| 00000450 73 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 65 64 20 70 61 72 61 6c |s directed paral| 00000460 6c 65 6c 20 74 6f 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 65 6c 65 |lel to. the. ele| 00000470 63 74 72 69 63 1a 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2e 20 46 6f |ctric. field. Fo| 00000480 72 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 74 77 6f 20 66 6f 72 63 |r these two forc| 00000490 65 73 20 74 6f 0d 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 74 |es to.balance, t| 000004a0 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 |he electric and | 000004b0 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 73 20 |magnetic fields | 000004c0 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 1a 20 70 65 72 70 65 6e 64 |must be. perpend| 000004d0 69 63 75 6c 61 72 1a 20 74 6f 1a 20 65 61 63 68 |icular. to. each| 000004e0 0d 6f 74 68 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 77 65 20 6d |.other, and we m| 000004f0 75 73 74 20 68 61 76 65 3a 0d 09 09 20 20 42 65 |ust have:... Be| 00000500 76 20 3d 20 45 65 0d 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |v = Ee.. | 00000510 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 | E| 00000520 0d 09 48 65 6e 63 65 2c 09 20 20 20 20 76 20 3d |..Hence,. v =| 00000530 20 2d 0d 09 09 09 42 0d 09 41 67 61 69 6e 2c 20 | -....B..Again, | 00000540 68 65 20 61 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 6b 6e 65 77 20 |he already knew | 00000550 74 68 65 20 76 61 6c 75 65 20 6d 76 2f 65 20 66 |the value mv/e f| 00000560 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 |rom the magnetic| 00000570 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 0d 73 6f 20 | deflection,.so | 00000580 68 65 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 20 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 |he could use the| 00000590 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 64 20 76 61 6c 75 65 20 | measured value | 000005a0 6f 66 20 76 20 74 6f 20 66 69 6e 64 20 74 68 65 |of v to find the| 000005b0 20 6d 61 73 73 3a 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 72 61 74 | mass:charge rat| 000005c0 69 6f 20 6d 2f 65 2e 0d 54 68 65 1a 20 72 65 73 |io m/e..The. res| 000005d0 75 6c 74 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d |ults from this m| 000005e0 65 61 73 75 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 72 65 20 61 |easurement are a| 000005f0 6c 73 6f 20 74 61 62 75 6c 61 74 65 64 20 69 6e |lso tabulated in| 00000600 20 74 68 65 20 50 68 69 6c 6f 73 6f 70 68 69 63 | the Philosophic| 00000610 61 6c 0d 4d 61 67 61 7a 69 6e 65 2e 20 54 68 65 |al.Magazine. The| 00000620 73 65 20 76 61 6c 75 65 73 20 66 6f 72 20 6d 2f |se values for m/| 00000630 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e 74 |e are consistent| 00000640 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 66 72 6f 6d | with those from| 00000650 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 0d 65 78 | the previous.ex| 00000660 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 68 61 |periment, and ha| 00000670 76 65 20 6d 75 63 68 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 |ve much smaller | 00000680 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 20 65 72 72 6f 72 73 20 74 68 |random errors th| 00000690 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 74 74 65 72 2e 0d 09 |an the latter...| 000006a0 49 74 1a 20 73 65 65 6d 65 64 1a 20 74 68 61 74 |It. seemed. that| 000006b0 1a 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 77 65 72 65 1a 20 74 77 |. there were. tw| 000006c0 6f 1a 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 1a 20 65 78 70 |o. possible. exp| 000006d0 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 1a 20 66 6f 72 1a 20 |lanations. for. | 000006e0 74 68 65 0d 6d 61 73 73 3a 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 |the.mass:charge | 000006f0 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 1a 20 |ratio of these. | 00000700 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 62 65 69 6e 67 |particles. being| 00000710 1a 20 73 6f 20 6d 75 63 68 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 |. so much smalle| 00000720 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6f 66 0d 61 |r than that of.a| 00000730 6e 79 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c |ny known particl| 00000740 65 2e 20 45 69 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 |e. Either their | 00000750 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 77 61 73 20 76 65 72 79 20 |charge was very | 00000760 6d 75 63 68 20 67 72 61 65 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 |much graeter tha| 00000770 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6f 66 0d 74 68 65 20 68 79 |n that of.the hy| 00000780 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2c 20 6f 72 20 74 |drogen ion, or t| 00000790 68 65 69 72 20 6d 61 73 73 20 77 61 73 1a 20 76 |heir mass was. v| 000007a0 65 72 79 1a 20 6d 75 63 68 20 6c 65 73 73 2e 20 |ery. much less. | 000007b0 54 68 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 6f 6e |The hydrogen ion| 000007c0 20 77 61 73 0d 74 68 6f 75 67 68 74 1a 20 74 6f | was.thought. to| 000007d0 1a 20 62 65 1a 20 61 1a 20 67 6f 6f 64 1a 20 72 |. be. a. good. r| 000007e0 65 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 1a 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 2c |eference. point,| 000007f0 1a 20 73 69 6e 63 65 1a 20 69 74 1a 20 68 61 64 |. since. it. had| 00000800 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 0d |. the. smallest.| 00000810 6d 61 73 73 3a 63 68 61 72 67 65 1a 20 72 61 74 |mass:charge. rat| 00000820 69 6f 1a 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 1a 20 |io. previously. | 00000830 65 6e 63 6f 75 6e 74 65 72 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 |encountered and | 00000840 77 61 73 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 74 6f 20 62 65 1a |was known to be.| 00000850 20 61 1a 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 0d 63 61 72 72 69 | a. charge.carri| 00000860 65 72 1a 20 69 6e 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 65 6c |er. in liquid el| 00000870 65 63 74 72 6f 6c 79 74 65 73 2e 1a 20 54 68 6f |ectrolytes.. Tho| 00000880 6d 73 6f 6e 1a 20 67 75 65 73 73 65 64 1a 20 69 |mson. guessed. i| 00000890 6d 6d 65 64 69 61 74 65 6c 79 1a 20 74 68 61 74 |mmediately. that| 000008a0 1a 20 74 68 65 0d 6d 61 69 6e 20 72 65 61 73 6f |. the.main reaso| 000008b0 6e 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 77 20 6d 2f |n for the low m/| 000008c0 65 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d |e must be the sm| 000008d0 61 6c 6c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 |all mass of the | 000008e0 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 |particles, since| 000008f0 0d 74 68 65 79 20 77 65 72 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e |.they were known| 00000900 20 74 6f 20 70 61 73 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 | to pass through| 00000910 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 69 75 6d | solid aluminium| 00000920 20 71 75 69 74 65 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 2e 0d 09 | quite easily...| 00000930 54 68 69 73 20 6c 65 64 20 68 69 6d 20 74 6f 20 |This led him to | 00000940 74 68 65 1a 20 75 6e 63 6f 6d 66 6f 72 74 61 62 |the. uncomfortab| 00000950 6c 65 1a 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 74 |le. conclusion t| 00000960 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 |hat these partic| 00000970 6c 65 73 0d 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 6d 61 6e 79 |les.must be many| 00000980 20 74 69 6d 65 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 65 72 20 74 | times lighter t| 00000990 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 |han the smallest| 000009a0 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 20 53 63 68 | known atom. Sch| 000009b0 75 73 74 65 72 20 68 61 64 20 6f 6e 63 65 0d 63 |uster had once.c| 000009c0 6f 6d 65 1a 20 74 6f 20 61 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 |ome. to a simila| 000009d0 72 20 61 6e 73 77 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 61 62 61 |r answer and aba| 000009e0 6e 64 6f 6e 65 64 1a 20 68 69 73 1a 20 72 65 61 |ndoned. his. rea| 000009f0 73 6f 6e 69 6e 67 1a 20 69 6d 6d 65 64 69 61 74 |soning. immediat| 00000a00 65 6c 79 2c 1a 20 62 75 74 0d 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f |ely,. but.Thomso| 00000a10 6e 20 77 61 73 1a 20 77 69 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 74 |n was. willing t| 00000a20 6f 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 69 |o consider the i| 00000a30 64 65 61 20 73 65 72 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 2e 20 48 |dea seriously. H| 00000a40 65 20 68 61 64 20 73 68 6f 77 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d |e had shown from| 00000a50 20 68 69 73 0d 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 | his.measurement| 00000a60 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 1a 20 6d 61 73 73 |s that the. mass| 00000a70 3a 63 68 61 72 67 65 1a 20 72 61 74 69 6f 1a 20 |:charge. ratio. | 00000a80 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 |of the particles| 00000a90 20 77 61 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 0d | was always the.| 00000aa0 73 61 6d 65 20 72 65 67 61 72 64 6c 65 73 73 20 |same regardless | 00000ab0 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 69 6e 1a 20 74 |of the gas in. t| 00000ac0 68 65 20 64 69 73 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 74 75 62 |he discharge tub| 00000ad0 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 |e, and the mater| 00000ae0 69 61 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 0d 63 61 74 68 6f |ial of the.catho| 00000af0 64 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 73 75 67 67 65 73 74 |de. This suggest| 00000b00 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 |ed that the new | 00000b10 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 70 |particles were p| 00000b20 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 6d 61 |resent in all ma| 00000b30 74 74 65 72 2c 0d 72 65 67 61 72 64 6c 65 73 73 |tter,.regardless| 00000b40 20 6f 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 6f 6d | of chemical com| 00000b50 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 49 74 20 68 61 64 |position. It had| 00000b60 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 1a 20 62 65 65 | previously. bee| 00000b70 6e 1a 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 64 1a 20 74 68 61 74 |n. assumed. that| 00000b80 0d 65 61 63 68 1a 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 1a |.each. chemical.| 00000b90 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 1a 20 69 73 1a 20 63 6f | element. is. co| 00000ba0 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 1a 20 6f 66 20 69 74 73 20 6f |mposed. of its o| 00000bb0 77 6e 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 |wn type of atoms| 00000bc0 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 0d 63 6f 6d 70 |, which are.comp| 00000bd0 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 73 69 62 |letely indivisib| 00000be0 6c 65 2e 20 48 65 6e 63 65 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 |le. Hence the ga| 00000bf0 73 65 73 20 6e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 1a 20 61 6e |ses nitrogen. an| 00000c00 64 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 77 65 72 65 20 62 65 |d oxygen were be| 00000c10 6c 69 65 76 65 64 0d 74 6f 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 |lieved.to contai| 00000c20 6e 20 6e 6f 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 69 |n no particles i| 00000c30 6e 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 2c 20 65 76 65 6e 1a 20 |n common, even. | 00000c40 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 65 70 65 73 74 20 6c |at the deepest l| 00000c50 65 76 65 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d |evel of the atom| 00000c60 2e 0d 54 68 69 73 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 77 61 |..This theory wa| 00000c70 73 20 6e 6f 20 6c 6f 6e 67 65 72 20 74 65 6e 61 |s no longer tena| 00000c80 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 20 76 69 65 77 1a 20 6f 66 1a |ble in view. of.| 00000c90 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 27 73 1a 20 64 69 73 63 | Thomson's. disc| 00000ca0 6f 76 65 72 79 2c 20 73 6f 20 68 65 0d 77 61 73 |overy, so he.was| 00000cb0 74 65 64 20 6e 6f 20 74 69 6d 65 20 69 6e 20 73 |ted no time in s| 00000cc0 75 67 67 65 73 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 |uggesting that t| 00000cd0 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 |he new particles| 00000ce0 2c 20 6f 72 20 22 63 6f 72 70 75 73 63 6c 65 73 |, or "corpuscles| 00000cf0 22 20 61 73 20 68 65 0d 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 1a 20 |" as he.called. | 00000d00 74 68 65 6d 2c 1a 20 77 65 72 65 1a 20 61 1a 20 |them,. were. a. | 00000d10 75 6e 69 76 65 72 73 61 6c 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 69 |universal consti| 00000d20 74 75 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f |tuent of all ato| 00000d30 6d 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 74 65 6e |ms. In the inten| 00000d40 73 65 0d 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 1a 20 66 69 65 |se.electric. fie| 00000d50 6c 64 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 61 20 63 61 74 68 |ld around a cath| 00000d60 6f 64 65 2c 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 6f 72 70 75 |ode,. the. corpu| 00000d70 73 63 6c 65 73 1a 20 69 6e 1a 20 73 6f 6d 65 1a |scles. in. some.| 00000d80 20 6f 66 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 67 61 73 0d 6d 6f | of. the. gas.mo| 00000d90 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 6f 72 1a 20 6d 65 74 61 |lecules or. meta| 00000da0 6c 1a 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 |l. atoms would b| 00000db0 72 65 61 6b 20 66 72 65 65 20 61 6e 64 20 62 65 |reak free and be| 00000dc0 20 61 63 63 65 6c 65 72 61 74 65 64 20 61 77 61 | accelerated awa| 00000dd0 79 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 0d 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 |y in the.form of| 00000de0 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 20 72 61 79 73 2e 20 53 | cathode rays. S| 00000df0 6f 6d 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 73 74 73 20 68 61 64 |ome chemists had| 00000e00 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 20 73 75 67 67 | previously sugg| 00000e10 65 73 74 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 |ested the existe| 00000e20 6e 63 65 0d 6f 66 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 20 62 75 |nce.of such a bu| 00000e30 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 1a 20 62 6c 6f 63 6b 1a 20 69 |ilding. block. i| 00000e40 6e 73 69 64 65 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 61 74 6f 6d |nside. the. atom| 00000e50 2c 1a 20 62 75 74 1a 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 6c 77 |,. but. they alw| 00000e60 61 79 73 20 68 61 64 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 0d 70 |ays had larger.p| 00000e70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 |articles such as| 00000e80 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 | hydrogen atoms | 00000e90 69 6e 20 6d 69 6e 64 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 76 |in mind, and nev| 00000ea0 65 72 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 1a 20 61 6e 79 1a 20 73 |er found. any. s| 00000eb0 75 70 70 6f 72 74 69 6e 67 0d 65 76 69 64 65 6e |upporting.eviden| 00000ec0 63 65 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 74 68 65 |ce for their the| 00000ed0 6f 72 69 65 73 2e 0d 0d 28 65 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 |ories...(explana| 00000ee0 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 4c 65 6e 61 72 64 27 73 |tion of Lenard's| 00000ef0 20 61 74 74 65 6e 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 78 70 | attenuation exp| 00000f00 74 3f 29 0d 0d 09 41 74 20 66 69 72 73 74 2c 20 |t?)...At first, | 00000f10 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 74 68 6f 75 67 68 74 20 |Thomson thought | 00000f20 74 68 61 74 1a 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 |that. the negati| 00000f30 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |ve charge of the| 00000f40 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 0d 77 61 73 20 67 72 | electron.was gr| 00000f50 65 61 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 |eater than the p| 00000f60 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 1a 20 |ositive charge. | 00000f70 6f 66 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 |of. the. hydroge| 00000f80 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2e 20 41 6c 74 68 6f 75 67 68 20 |n ion. Although | 00000f90 74 68 69 73 0d 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 68 65 6c 70 20 |this.would help | 00000fa0 74 6f 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6c |to explain the l| 00000fb0 6f 77 20 6d 2f 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2c 20 69 74 |ow m/e ratio, it| 00000fc0 1a 20 73 65 65 6d 73 1a 20 6f 64 64 1a 20 74 6f |. seems. odd. to| 00000fd0 1a 20 73 75 67 67 65 73 74 1a 20 74 68 61 74 0d |. suggest. that.| 00000fe0 74 68 65 1a 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 1a 20 6f 66 1a |the. charge. of.| 00000ff0 20 74 68 65 1a 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 63 | the. negative c| 00001000 6f 72 70 75 73 63 6c 65 20 73 68 6f 75 6c 64 20 |orpuscle should | 00001010 62 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 |be larger than t| 00001020 68 61 74 20 6f 66 20 69 74 73 0d 75 6e 64 69 73 |hat of its.undis| 00001030 63 6f 76 65 72 72 65 64 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 |coverred positiv| 00001040 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 65 72 70 61 72 74 2e 20 54 |e counterpart. T| 00001050 68 69 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 1a 20 70 6c 61 63 65 |his would. place| 00001060 1a 20 73 65 76 65 72 65 20 72 65 73 74 72 69 63 |. severe restric| 00001070 74 69 6f 6e 73 0d 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 61 |tions.on their a| 00001080 72 72 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 61 74 |rrangement in at| 00001090 6f 6d 73 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 20 74 68 65 1a 20 |oms, since the. | 000010a0 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 |total charge of | 000010b0 74 68 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 61 6e 64 |the positive and| 000010c0 0d 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 6e |.negative compon| 000010d0 65 6e 74 73 20 6d 75 73 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 |ents must always| 000010e0 20 62 65 20 7a 65 72 6f 2e 20 48 65 20 65 78 70 | be zero. He exp| 000010f0 6c 61 69 6e 73 1a 20 68 69 73 20 72 65 61 73 6f |lains. his reaso| 00001100 6e 69 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 0d 50 68 69 6c |ning in the.Phil| 00001110 6f 73 6f 70 68 69 63 61 6c 20 4d 61 67 61 7a 69 |osophical Magazi| 00001120 6e 65 3a 0d 09 22 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c |ne:.."In the mol| 00001130 65 63 75 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 48 43 6c 2c 20 66 6f |ecule of HCl, fo| 00001140 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 49 20 70 69 63 |r example, I pic| 00001150 74 75 72 65 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f |ture. the. compo| 00001160 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 0d 74 68 65 1a 20 68 79 |nents of.the. hy| 00001170 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 1a 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 1a 20 61 |drogen. atoms. a| 00001180 73 1a 20 68 65 6c 64 1a 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 |s. held. togethe| 00001190 72 1a 20 62 79 1a 20 61 20 67 72 65 61 74 20 6e |r. by. a great n| 000011a0 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 1a 20 74 75 62 65 73 1a |umber of. tubes.| 000011b0 20 6f 66 0d 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 73 74 61 74 69 | of.electrostati| 000011c0 63 1a 20 66 6f 72 63 65 3b 1a 20 74 68 65 20 63 |c. force;. the c| 000011d0 6f 6d 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |omponents of the| 000011e0 20 63 68 6c 6f 72 69 6e 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 1a 20 | chlorine atom. | 000011f0 61 72 65 1a 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 6c 79 0d 68 |are. similarly.h| 00001200 65 6c 64 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 2c 20 77 68 |eld together, wh| 00001210 69 6c 65 1a 20 6f 6e 6c 79 1a 20 6f 6e 65 1a 20 |ile. only. one. | 00001220 73 74 72 61 79 1a 20 74 75 62 65 20 62 69 6e 64 |stray. tube bind| 00001230 20 74 68 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 61 74 | the hydrogen at| 00001240 6f 6d 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 0d 63 68 6c 6f 72 69 |om to the.chlori| 00001250 6e 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 22 0d 09 54 68 69 73 20 |ne atom."..This | 00001260 6d 61 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 62 65 65 6e 20 61 6e |may have been an| 00001270 1a 20 61 74 74 65 6d 70 74 1a 20 74 6f 20 65 78 |. attempt. to ex| 00001280 70 6c 61 69 6e 20 77 68 79 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 |plain why it is | 00001290 73 6f 20 6d 75 63 68 20 65 61 73 69 65 72 0d 74 |so much easier.t| 000012a0 6f 1a 20 73 70 6c 69 74 1a 20 61 6e 20 48 43 6c |o. split. an HCl| 000012b0 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 | molecule into t| 000012c0 77 6f 1a 20 69 6f 6e 73 1a 20 74 68 61 6e 1a 20 |wo. ions. than. | 000012d0 74 6f 1a 20 62 72 65 61 6b 1a 20 61 6e 1a 20 61 |to. break. an. a| 000012e0 74 6f 6d 1a 20 69 6e 74 6f 0d 69 6e 64 69 76 69 |tom. into.indivi| 000012f0 64 75 61 6c 20 63 6f 72 70 75 73 63 6c 65 73 2e |dual corpuscles.| 00001300 20 49 66 1a 20 74 68 69 73 1a 20 77 65 72 65 1a | If. this. were.| 00001310 20 6e 6f 74 1a 20 74 68 65 1a 20 63 61 73 65 2c | not. the. case,| 00001320 1a 20 74 68 65 6e 1a 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 |. then. atoms of| 00001330 20 6f 6e 65 0d 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 6f 75 | one.element wou| 00001340 6c 64 20 62 72 65 61 6b 20 61 70 61 72 74 20 61 |ld break apart a| 00001350 6e 64 20 72 65 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b |nd reform to mak| 00001360 65 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 2e 20 4e 6f 77 61 64 |e another. Nowad| 00001370 61 79 73 1a 20 77 65 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 0d |ays. we explain.| 00001380 74 68 69 73 20 69 6e 20 74 65 72 6d 73 20 6f 66 |this in terms of| 00001390 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 6e 75 63 6c | the strong nucl| 000013a0 65 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 |ear force, which| 000013b0 20 64 6f 65 73 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c | does effectivel| 000013c0 79 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 6e 65 0d 73 74 61 62 6c |y form one.stabl| 000013d0 65 20 63 6f 72 70 75 73 63 6c 65 20 28 74 68 65 |e corpuscle (the| 000013e0 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 29 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 | nucleus) with a| 000013f0 20 68 69 67 68 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 0d 09 53 | high charge...S| 00001400 6f 6f 6e 20 61 66 74 65 72 77 61 72 64 73 20 54 |oon afterwards T| 00001410 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 61 62 61 6e 64 6f 6e 65 64 |homson abandoned| 00001420 20 74 68 69 73 1a 20 69 64 65 61 2c 1a 20 72 65 | this. idea,. re| 00001430 61 6c 69 73 69 6e 67 1a 20 74 68 61 74 1a 20 74 |alising. that. t| 00001440 68 65 0d 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 1a 20 63 68 61 |he.negative. cha| 00001450 72 67 65 1a 20 6f 66 1a 20 61 1a 20 63 6f 72 70 |rge. of. a. corp| 00001460 75 73 63 6c 65 1a 20 69 73 1a 20 65 71 75 61 6c |uscle. is. equal| 00001470 1a 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 |. to the positiv| 00001480 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 61 0d 68 79 |e charge of a.hy| 00001490 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2e 0d |drogen ion..| 0000149c
EltronBKP/ElectronD.m0
EltronBKP/ElectronD.m1
EltronBKP/ElectronD.m2
EltronBKP/ElectronD.m4
EltronBKP/ElectronD.m5
.