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06_11_87/OU
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| Filename: | 06_11_87/OU |
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| Exec address: | 0000 |
File contents
New Directions in Microelectronics
----------------------------------
or how to follow up 'New Opportunities'.
'New Opportunities' is the introductory TV programme to an Open
University pack on microelectronics for industry. The programme
is transmitted on Saturday 7th November, BBC2 1215 (in the
afternoon).
The new opportunities referred to in the title are the 'ASIC's, or
Application Specific Integrated Circuits. The TV programme, and
these telesoftware notes, explain what ASICs are, why they are so
important, and how smaller companies can use them.
Ancient History
---------------
If you are interested in electronics, and you have taken the
trouble to download these notes, you'll know about the 'first
revolution' of microelectronics - the integrated circuit.
Most of the publicity was generated by the coming of the
microprocessor, in the 1970's, but the story began before that.
The technology to produce a set of interconnected transistors and
components on the one wafer of silicon was developed in the
1960's. Specialist military and space circuits were the first to
be fabricated as 'chips', enabling the technology of mass
production to be developed. Some of the first ICs to be
commercially available were analogue circuits - 3 or 5 transistor
amplifiers (the RCA series), and the very successful digital
circuits known as TTL (transistor-transistor logic). The
so-called '74' series of circuits were amongst the first TTL
families, and are still available (in improved form) today, at a
fraction of the original cost. These ICs will have some 4 to 8
logic 'gates' in a package, or 2 timers or flip-flop circuits,
with something like 100 transistors in the package.
By the late 1970's, ICs were being produced with more and more
transistors in them. The main reason for doing this was, of
course, to increase the complexity of the job being done by the
IC: a full microprocessor, or a larger memory circuit. What
made it possible was a combination of two factors:
- improvement in the silicon manufacturing processes, making
it possible to produce transistors in ever smaller areas, and
improving the 'yield', the number of working circuits per wafer.
- advances in the design of circuits, by using computer aids
to the design team. This meant that larger circuits could be
designed reliably!
Today
-----
It's quite a shock, even to those in the industry, to see how
methods have advanced compared to the 'recent' past. For
instance, do you remember all the fuss about the micro the 'first
time around'. One of the common TV images (notably in a Horizon
film in Silicon Valley) was of a technician tracing out a circuit
from a huge piece of paper on a draughtsman's table, using a
digitising tablet to input the information to a computer. This
technique now seems quaint, somewhat similar to shodding horses!
Computers are now the first tools of the designers. They use
computer programs to 'draw' the circuit, placing logic symbols
onto the screen. Other programs will simulate the performance of
this circuit, and later produce the information required in the
silicon foundry to process each of the layers in the silicon to
manufacture the circuit.
As you might expect, all these tools are expensive, to buy and to
use. Until recently, this meant that anyone manufacturing an IC
would have to design a circuit that would sell in millions, in
order to recoup the start-up costs. This is called 'full custom'
design. (The TV programme shows one such 'specialist' IC, that
used in a compact disc player).
ASICs
-----
There has been a fortunate, and rather unexpected, development.
Those sophisticated computer tools that have been produced to aid
in the design of the large ICs have made it easier than before to
design smaller ones! Advances in the manufacturing side have
made it possible to make the circuits too. ASICs are circuits
with one specialised application in mind, for one manufacturer,
and they will not be expected to sell in huge numbers.
(Typically, an ASIC would replace some 10 to 20 standard logic
ICs, making for a much smaller sub-assembly within a product)
There are two families of ASICs, as seen in the programme:
- "Gate Array". The silicon manufacturer produces chips
to one general pattern, a regular array of transistors which are
NOT connected to each other to form a circuit. On top of them is
a layer of aluminium. By etching away most of the top layer, but
leaving thin lines connecting areas of the underlying silicon,
transistors can be joined to make a circuit. The advantage of
gate array technology is that the silicon manufacturer takes
advantage of 'bulk' processing, in all but the final process. The
disadvantage is that, compared to 'full custom' design, the
circuit will be physically larger, with some areas of wasted
silicon. This may not sound important at first, after all the
circuits are pretty tiny compared to the product they sit in, but
the problem is that, the larger the area of silicon, the fewer can
be fitted on a wafer, and the smaller the yield of working
circuits per wafer. These factors have a large influence on the
cost of a circuit.
- "Standard Cell". Computer programs are used extensively
to interpret the logic diagram drawn by the designer, simulate it,
design the layouts of the areas on the silicon, and produce the
information that will manufacture the circuit. The programs work
on the basis of stored libraries of standard building blocks,
which they put together to match the intended end product. The
technique is inherently more versatile than Gate Array, but means
higher silicon processing costs, since all layers of the IC will
be designed and fabricated from scratch!
Future Trends
-------------
No doubt, computer programs will become more sophisticated, and
easier to use. Already it is feasible for a small manufacturer
to design a Gate Array using software on an IBM-PC. Another
manufacturer offers software on a BBC Micro based system.
(Admittedly, at the top, 'workstation' end of the BBC range!).
The price of engineering workstations is coming down every year
(with the new IBM PC and the Archimedes systems yet to make their
mark as REALLY cheap, yet powerful hardware).
To those already in the industry, the trend seems to be moving
toward the Standard Cell approach. But what about those who are
yet to enter? Manufacturers are in the dilemma well known to
anyone trying to buy a computer (even a home micro). Every year
seems to bring a major advance, in a different system. The only
clear-cut decision seems to be to wait for the next year...but the
situation never resolves!
Contacts
--------
The Open University packs on Microelectronics for Industry are an
attempt to bring some technical (and impartial) advice onto the
scene. If you would like further information on the packs,
please write to:
LMSO
PO Box 188
The Open University
Milton Keynes
MK7 6DH
or phone 0908 653338 (answerphone), quoting pack PT504.
If you have any comments on these notes, or on the TV programme,
the author/producer would be pleased to hear from you.
Please write to me,
Philip Ashby
Room 107
BBC Centre
Walton Hall
Milton Keynes
MK7 6BH
or mbx on 81:BBC108
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'New Opportuni| 000000a0 74 69 65 73 27 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 74 |ties' is the int| 000000b0 72 6f 64 75 63 74 6f 72 79 20 54 56 20 70 72 6f |roductory TV pro| 000000c0 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 4f 70 65 |gramme to an Ope| 000000d0 6e 0d 20 55 6e 69 76 65 72 73 69 74 79 20 70 61 |n. University pa| 000000e0 63 6b 20 6f 6e 20 6d 69 63 72 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 |ck on microelect| 000000f0 72 6f 6e 69 63 73 20 66 6f 72 20 69 6e 64 75 73 |ronics for indus| 00000100 74 72 79 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 70 72 6f 67 72 |try. The progr| 00000110 61 6d 6d 65 0d 20 69 73 20 74 72 61 6e 73 6d 69 |amme. is transmi| 00000120 74 74 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 53 61 74 75 72 64 61 79 |tted on Saturday| 00000130 20 37 74 68 20 4e 6f 76 65 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 42 | 7th November, B| 00000140 42 43 32 20 31 32 31 35 20 28 69 6e 20 74 68 65 |BC2 1215 (in the| 00000150 0d 20 61 66 74 65 72 6e 6f 6f 6e 29 2e 0d 0d 20 |. afternoon)... | 00000160 54 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 6f 70 70 6f 72 74 75 6e |The new opportun| 00000170 69 74 69 65 73 20 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 74 |ities referred t| 00000180 6f 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 74 69 74 6c 65 20 61 |o in the title a| 00000190 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 27 41 53 49 43 27 73 2c 20 |re the 'ASIC's, | 000001a0 6f 72 0d 20 41 70 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 |or. Application | 000001b0 53 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 49 6e 74 65 67 72 61 |Specific Integra| 000001c0 74 65 64 20 43 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 2e 20 20 20 |ted Circuits. | 000001d0 54 68 65 20 54 56 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 |The TV programme| 000001e0 2c 20 61 6e 64 0d 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 74 65 6c |, and. these tel| 000001f0 65 73 6f 66 74 77 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 65 73 2c |esoftware notes,| 00000200 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 20 77 68 61 74 20 41 53 | explain what AS| 00000210 49 43 73 20 61 72 65 2c 20 77 68 79 20 74 68 65 |ICs are, why the| 00000220 79 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 0d 20 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 |y are so. import| 00000230 61 6e 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 68 6f 77 20 73 6d 61 |ant, and how sma| 00000240 6c 6c 65 72 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 6e 69 65 73 20 63 |ller companies c| 00000250 61 6e 20 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 6d 2e 0d 0d 0d 20 |an use them.... | 00000260 41 6e 63 69 65 6e 74 20 48 69 73 74 6f 72 79 0d |Ancient History.| 00000270 20 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d | ---------------| 00000280 0d 0d 20 49 66 20 79 6f 75 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e |.. If you are in| 00000290 74 65 72 65 73 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 |terested in elec| 000002a0 74 72 6f 6e 69 63 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 79 6f 75 |tronics, and you| 000002b0 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 61 6b 65 6e 20 74 68 65 0d | have taken the.| 000002c0 20 74 72 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 77 6e | trouble to down| 000002d0 6c 6f 61 64 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 6e 6f 74 65 73 |load these notes| 000002e0 2c 20 79 6f 75 27 6c 6c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 20 61 62 |, you'll know ab| 000002f0 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 27 66 69 72 73 74 0d 20 |out the 'first. | 00000300 72 65 76 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 27 20 6f 66 20 6d |revolution' of m| 00000310 69 63 72 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 69 63 73 20 |icroelectronics | 00000320 20 2d 20 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 72 61 74 | - the integrat| 00000330 65 64 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 0d 0d 20 4d 6f |ed circuit... Mo| 00000340 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 75 62 6c 69 63 |st of the public| 00000350 69 74 79 20 77 61 73 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 |ity was generate| 00000360 64 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 |d by the coming | 00000370 6f 66 20 74 68 65 0d 20 6d 69 63 72 6f 70 72 6f |of the. micropro| 00000380 63 65 73 73 6f 72 2c 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 31 |cessor, in the 1| 00000390 39 37 30 27 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 |970's, but the s| 000003a0 74 6f 72 79 20 62 65 67 61 6e 20 62 65 66 6f 72 |tory began befor| 000003b0 65 20 74 68 61 74 2e 0d 20 54 68 65 20 74 65 63 |e that.. The tec| 000003c0 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 79 20 74 6f 20 70 72 6f 64 75 |hnology to produ| 000003d0 63 65 20 61 20 73 65 74 20 6f 66 20 69 6e 74 65 |ce a set of inte| 000003e0 72 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 72 61 6e 73 |rconnected trans| 000003f0 69 73 74 6f 72 73 20 61 6e 64 0d 20 63 6f 6d 70 |istors and. comp| 00000400 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 6e |onents on the on| 00000410 65 20 77 61 66 65 72 20 6f 66 20 73 69 6c 69 63 |e wafer of silic| 00000420 6f 6e 20 77 61 73 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 |on was developed| 00000430 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 0d 20 31 39 36 30 27 73 2e | in the. 1960's.| 00000440 20 20 20 53 70 65 63 69 61 6c 69 73 74 20 6d 69 | Specialist mi| 00000450 6c 69 74 61 72 79 20 61 6e 64 20 73 70 61 63 65 |litary and space| 00000460 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 74 | circuits were t| 00000470 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 74 6f 0d 20 62 65 20 |he first to. be | 00000480 66 61 62 72 69 63 61 74 65 64 20 61 73 20 27 63 |fabricated as 'c| 00000490 68 69 70 73 27 2c 20 65 6e 61 62 6c 69 6e 67 20 |hips', enabling | 000004a0 74 68 65 20 74 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 79 20 6f |the technology o| 000004b0 66 20 6d 61 73 73 0d 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 69 |f mass. producti| 000004c0 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 |on to be develop| 000004d0 65 64 2e 20 20 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 |ed. Some of th| 000004e0 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 49 43 73 20 74 6f 20 62 |e first ICs to b| 000004f0 65 0d 20 63 6f 6d 6d 65 72 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 |e. commercially | 00000500 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 77 65 72 65 20 61 |available were a| 00000510 6e 61 6c 6f 67 75 65 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 |nalogue circuits| 00000520 20 2d 20 33 20 6f 72 20 35 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 | - 3 or 5 transi| 00000530 73 74 6f 72 0d 20 61 6d 70 6c 69 66 69 65 72 73 |stor. amplifiers| 00000540 20 28 74 68 65 20 52 43 41 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 | (the RCA series| 00000550 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 |), and the very | 00000560 73 75 63 63 65 73 73 66 75 6c 20 64 69 67 69 74 |successful digit| 00000570 61 6c 0d 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 20 6b 6e 6f |al. circuits kno| 00000580 77 6e 20 61 73 20 54 54 4c 20 28 74 72 61 6e 73 |wn as TTL (trans| 00000590 69 73 74 6f 72 2d 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 6f 72 |istor-transistor| 000005a0 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 29 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 0d 20 | logic). The. | 000005b0 73 6f 2d 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 27 37 34 27 20 73 |so-called '74' s| 000005c0 65 72 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 |eries of circuit| 000005d0 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 61 6d 6f 6e 67 73 74 20 74 |s were amongst t| 000005e0 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 54 54 4c 0d 20 66 61 |he first TTL. fa| 000005f0 6d 69 6c 69 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 |milies, and are | 00000600 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 |still available | 00000610 28 69 6e 20 69 6d 70 72 6f 76 65 64 20 66 6f 72 |(in improved for| 00000620 6d 29 20 74 6f 64 61 79 2c 20 61 74 20 61 0d 20 |m) today, at a. | 00000630 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 |fraction of the | 00000640 6f 72 69 67 69 6e 61 6c 20 63 6f 73 74 2e 20 20 |original cost. | 00000650 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 49 43 73 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 | These ICs will | 00000660 68 61 76 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 34 20 74 6f 20 38 |have some 4 to 8| 00000670 0d 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 20 27 67 61 74 65 73 27 20 |. logic 'gates' | 00000680 69 6e 20 61 20 70 61 63 6b 61 67 65 2c 20 6f 72 |in a package, or| 00000690 20 32 20 74 69 6d 65 72 73 20 6f 72 20 66 6c 69 | 2 timers or fli| 000006a0 70 2d 66 6c 6f 70 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 2c |p-flop circuits,| 000006b0 0d 20 77 69 74 68 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 6e 67 |. with something| 000006c0 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 31 30 30 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 | like 100 transi| 000006d0 73 74 6f 72 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 63 |stors in the pac| 000006e0 6b 61 67 65 2e 0d 0d 20 42 79 20 74 68 65 20 6c |kage... By the l| 000006f0 61 74 65 20 31 39 37 30 27 73 2c 20 49 43 73 20 |ate 1970's, ICs | 00000700 77 65 72 65 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 70 72 6f 64 75 |were being produ| 00000710 63 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 61 6e |ced with more an| 00000720 64 20 6d 6f 72 65 0d 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 |d more. transist| 00000730 6f 72 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 6d 2e 20 20 20 54 |ors in them. T| 00000740 68 65 20 6d 61 69 6e 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 20 66 |he main reason f| 00000750 6f 72 20 64 6f 69 6e 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 77 61 |or doing this wa| 00000760 73 2c 20 6f 66 0d 20 63 6f 75 72 73 65 2c 20 74 |s, of. course, t| 00000770 6f 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 |o increase the c| 00000780 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |omplexity of the| 00000790 20 6a 6f 62 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 64 6f 6e 65 20 | job being done | 000007a0 62 79 20 74 68 65 0d 20 49 43 3a 20 20 61 20 66 |by the. IC: a f| 000007b0 75 6c 6c 20 6d 69 63 72 6f 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 |ull microprocess| 000007c0 6f 72 2c 20 6f 72 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 |or, or a larger | 000007d0 6d 65 6d 6f 72 79 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 20 |memory circuit. | 000007e0 20 20 57 68 61 74 0d 20 6d 61 64 65 20 69 74 20 | What. made it | 000007f0 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 77 61 73 20 61 20 63 |possible was a c| 00000800 6f 6d 62 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 77 |ombination of tw| 00000810 6f 20 66 61 63 74 6f 72 73 3a 0d 20 20 20 20 20 |o factors:. | 00000820 20 20 2d 20 20 69 6d 70 72 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 | - improvement| 00000830 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 20 | in the silicon | 00000840 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 69 6e 67 20 70 72 |manufacturing pr| 00000850 6f 63 65 73 73 65 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 0d |ocesses, making.| 00000860 20 69 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 | it possible to | 00000870 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 |produce transist| 00000880 6f 72 73 20 69 6e 20 65 76 65 72 20 73 6d 61 6c |ors in ever smal| 00000890 6c 65 72 20 61 72 65 61 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 0d 20 |ler areas, and. | 000008a0 69 6d 70 72 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 27 79 |improving the 'y| 000008b0 69 65 6c 64 27 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 |ield', the numbe| 000008c0 72 20 6f 66 20 77 6f 72 6b 69 6e 67 20 63 69 72 |r of working cir| 000008d0 63 75 69 74 73 20 70 65 72 20 77 61 66 65 72 2e |cuits per wafer.| 000008e0 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2d 20 20 61 64 76 61 6e |. - advan| 000008f0 63 65 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 73 69 67 |ces in the desig| 00000900 6e 20 6f 66 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 2c 20 62 |n of circuits, b| 00000910 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 |y using computer| 00000920 20 61 69 64 73 0d 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 | aids. to the de| 00000930 73 69 67 6e 20 74 65 61 6d 2e 20 20 54 68 69 73 |sign team. This| 00000940 20 6d 65 61 6e 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 6c 61 72 67 | meant that larg| 00000950 65 72 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 20 63 6f 75 6c |er circuits coul| 00000960 64 20 62 65 0d 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 64 20 72 |d be. designed r| 00000970 65 6c 69 61 62 6c 79 21 0d 0d 0d 20 54 6f 64 61 |eliably!... Toda| 00000980 79 0d 20 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 0d 0d 0d 20 49 74 27 73 |y. -----... It's| 00000990 20 71 75 69 74 65 20 61 20 73 68 6f 63 6b 2c 20 | quite a shock, | 000009a0 65 76 65 6e 20 74 6f 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 69 6e |even to those in| 000009b0 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 64 75 73 74 72 79 2c 20 74 | the industry, t| 000009c0 6f 20 73 65 65 20 68 6f 77 0d 20 6d 65 74 68 6f |o see how. metho| 000009d0 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 64 76 61 6e 63 65 64 |ds have advanced| 000009e0 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 | compared to the| 000009f0 20 27 72 65 63 65 6e 74 27 20 70 61 73 74 2e 20 | 'recent' past. | 00000a00 20 46 6f 72 0d 20 69 6e 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 | For. instance, | 00000a10 64 6f 20 79 6f 75 20 72 65 6d 65 6d 62 65 72 20 |do you remember | 00000a20 61 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 66 75 73 73 20 61 62 6f |all the fuss abo| 00000a30 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 6d 69 63 72 6f 20 74 68 65 |ut the micro the| 00000a40 20 27 66 69 72 73 74 0d 20 74 69 6d 65 20 61 72 | 'first. time ar| 00000a50 6f 75 6e 64 27 2e 20 20 20 4f 6e 65 20 6f 66 20 |ound'. One of | 00000a60 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 54 56 20 69 6d |the common TV im| 00000a70 61 67 65 73 20 28 6e 6f 74 61 62 6c 79 20 69 6e |ages (notably in| 00000a80 20 61 20 48 6f 72 69 7a 6f 6e 0d 20 66 69 6c 6d | a Horizon. film| 00000a90 20 69 6e 20 53 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 20 56 61 6c 6c | in Silicon Vall| 00000aa0 65 79 29 20 77 61 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 74 65 63 |ey) was of a tec| 00000ab0 68 6e 69 63 69 61 6e 20 74 72 61 63 69 6e 67 20 |hnician tracing | 00000ac0 6f 75 74 20 61 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 0d 20 66 |out a circuit. f| 00000ad0 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 68 75 67 65 20 70 69 65 63 65 |rom a huge piece| 00000ae0 20 6f 66 20 70 61 70 65 72 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 64 | of paper on a d| 00000af0 72 61 75 67 68 74 73 6d 61 6e 27 73 20 74 61 62 |raughtsman's tab| 00000b00 6c 65 2c 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 61 0d 20 64 69 67 |le, using a. dig| 00000b10 69 74 69 73 69 6e 67 20 74 61 62 6c 65 74 20 74 |itising tablet t| 00000b20 6f 20 69 6e 70 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 66 6f |o input the info| 00000b30 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 61 20 63 6f 6d |rmation to a com| 00000b40 70 75 74 65 72 2e 20 20 20 54 68 69 73 0d 20 74 |puter. This. t| 00000b50 65 63 68 6e 69 71 75 65 20 6e 6f 77 20 73 65 65 |echnique now see| 00000b60 6d 73 20 71 75 61 69 6e 74 2c 20 73 6f 6d 65 77 |ms quaint, somew| 00000b70 68 61 74 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 73 |hat similar to s| 00000b80 68 6f 64 64 69 6e 67 20 68 6f 72 73 65 73 21 0d |hodding horses!.| 00000b90 0d 20 43 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 |. Computers are | 00000ba0 6e 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 74 6f |now the first to| 00000bb0 6f 6c 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 73 69 67 |ols of the desig| 00000bc0 6e 65 72 73 2e 20 20 54 68 65 79 20 75 73 65 0d |ners. They use.| 00000bd0 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 | computer progra| 00000be0 6d 73 20 74 6f 20 27 64 72 61 77 27 20 74 68 65 |ms to 'draw' the| 00000bf0 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2c 20 70 6c 61 63 69 6e | circuit, placin| 00000c00 67 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 20 73 79 6d 62 6f 6c 73 0d |g logic symbols.| 00000c10 20 6f 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 72 65 65 6e | onto the screen| 00000c20 2e 20 20 20 4f 74 68 65 72 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 |. Other progra| 00000c30 6d 73 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 73 69 6d 75 6c 61 74 65 |ms will simulate| 00000c40 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 66 6f 72 6d 61 6e 63 65 | the performance| 00000c50 20 6f 66 0d 20 74 68 69 73 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 | of. this circui| 00000c60 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 74 65 72 20 70 72 6f |t, and later pro| 00000c70 64 75 63 65 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 |duce the informa| 00000c80 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 69 6e |tion required in| 00000c90 20 74 68 65 0d 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 20 66 6f | the. silicon fo| 00000ca0 75 6e 64 72 79 20 74 6f 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 |undry to process| 00000cb0 20 65 61 63 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 79 | each of the lay| 00000cc0 65 72 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6c 69 63 |ers in the silic| 00000cd0 6f 6e 20 74 6f 0d 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 |on to. manufactu| 00000ce0 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 0d |re the circuit..| 00000cf0 0d 20 41 73 20 79 6f 75 20 6d 69 67 68 74 20 65 |. As you might e| 00000d00 78 70 65 63 74 2c 20 61 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 73 65 |xpect, all these| 00000d10 20 74 6f 6f 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 65 78 70 65 6e | tools are expen| 00000d20 73 69 76 65 2c 20 74 6f 20 62 75 79 20 61 6e 64 |sive, to buy and| 00000d30 20 74 6f 0d 20 75 73 65 2e 20 20 20 55 6e 74 69 | to. use. Unti| 00000d40 6c 20 72 65 63 65 6e 74 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 69 73 |l recently, this| 00000d50 20 6d 65 61 6e 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 6e 79 6f | meant that anyo| 00000d60 6e 65 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 69 6e 67 |ne manufacturing| 00000d70 20 61 6e 20 49 43 0d 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 68 61 | an IC. would ha| 00000d80 76 65 20 74 6f 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 20 61 20 63 |ve to design a c| 00000d90 69 72 63 75 69 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 77 6f 75 6c |ircuit that woul| 00000da0 64 20 73 65 6c 6c 20 69 6e 20 6d 69 6c 6c 69 6f |d sell in millio| 00000db0 6e 73 2c 20 69 6e 0d 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f |ns, in. order to| 00000dc0 20 72 65 63 6f 75 70 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 72 | recoup the star| 00000dd0 74 2d 75 70 20 63 6f 73 74 73 2e 20 20 20 54 68 |t-up costs. Th| 00000de0 69 73 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 27 66 75 |is is called 'fu| 00000df0 6c 6c 20 63 75 73 74 6f 6d 27 0d 20 64 65 73 69 |ll custom'. desi| 00000e00 67 6e 2e 20 20 28 54 68 65 20 54 56 20 70 72 6f |gn. (The TV pro| 00000e10 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 20 73 68 6f 77 73 20 6f 6e 65 |gramme shows one| 00000e20 20 73 75 63 68 20 27 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 69 73 | such 'specialis| 00000e30 74 27 20 49 43 2c 20 74 68 61 74 0d 20 75 73 65 |t' IC, that. use| 00000e40 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 63 74 20 64 |d in a compact d| 00000e50 69 73 63 20 70 6c 61 79 65 72 29 2e 0d 0d 0d 20 |isc player).... | 00000e60 41 53 49 43 73 0d 20 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 0d 20 54 68 |ASICs. -----. Th| 00000e70 65 72 65 20 68 61 73 20 62 65 65 6e 20 61 20 66 |ere has been a f| 00000e80 6f 72 74 75 6e 61 74 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 72 61 |ortunate, and ra| 00000e90 74 68 65 72 20 75 6e 65 78 70 65 63 74 65 64 2c |ther unexpected,| 00000ea0 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 6d 65 6e 74 2e 0d 20 54 | development.. T| 00000eb0 68 6f 73 65 20 73 6f 70 68 69 73 74 69 63 61 74 |hose sophisticat| 00000ec0 65 64 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 74 6f 6f 6c |ed computer tool| 00000ed0 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 61 76 65 20 62 65 65 6e |s that have been| 00000ee0 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 69 64 | produced to aid| 00000ef0 0d 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 20 |. in the design | 00000f00 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 49 43 73 |of the large ICs| 00000f10 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 61 64 65 20 69 74 20 65 61 | have made it ea| 00000f20 73 69 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 62 65 66 6f 72 65 |sier than before| 00000f30 20 74 6f 0d 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 20 73 6d 61 6c | to. design smal| 00000f40 6c 65 72 20 6f 6e 65 73 21 20 20 20 41 64 76 61 |ler ones! Adva| 00000f50 6e 63 65 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 6e 75 |nces in the manu| 00000f60 66 61 63 74 75 72 69 6e 67 20 73 69 64 65 20 68 |facturing side h| 00000f70 61 76 65 0d 20 6d 61 64 65 20 69 74 20 70 6f 73 |ave. made it pos| 00000f80 73 69 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 74 68 |sible to make th| 00000f90 65 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 20 74 6f 6f 2e 20 |e circuits too. | 00000fa0 20 20 41 53 49 43 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 69 72 63 | ASICs are circ| 00000fb0 75 69 74 73 0d 20 77 69 74 68 20 6f 6e 65 20 73 |uits. with one s| 00000fc0 70 65 63 69 61 6c 69 73 65 64 20 61 70 70 6c 69 |pecialised appli| 00000fd0 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 6d 69 6e 64 2c 20 |cation in mind, | 00000fe0 66 6f 72 20 6f 6e 65 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 |for one manufact| 00000ff0 75 72 65 72 2c 0d 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 79 20 |urer,. and they | 00001000 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 20 65 78 70 65 |will not be expe| 00001010 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 65 6c 6c 20 69 6e 20 |cted to sell in | 00001020 68 75 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 2e 0d 20 28 |huge numbers.. (| 00001030 54 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 61 6e 20 41 53 |Typically, an AS| 00001040 49 43 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 |IC would replace| 00001050 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 31 30 20 74 6f 20 32 30 20 73 | some 10 to 20 s| 00001060 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 0d 20 49 |tandard logic. I| 00001070 43 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 66 6f 72 20 61 |Cs, making for a| 00001080 20 6d 75 63 68 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 73 75 | much smaller su| 00001090 62 2d 61 73 73 65 6d 62 6c 79 20 77 69 74 68 69 |b-assembly withi| 000010a0 6e 20 61 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 29 0d 0d 20 54 |n a product).. T| 000010b0 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f 20 66 61 6d |here are two fam| 000010c0 69 6c 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 41 53 49 43 73 2c 20 |ilies of ASICs, | 000010d0 61 73 20 73 65 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 |as seen in the p| 000010e0 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 6d 65 3a 0d 0d 20 20 20 20 20 |rogramme:.. | 000010f0 20 20 2d 20 20 22 47 61 74 65 20 41 72 72 61 79 | - "Gate Array| 00001100 22 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e |". The silicon| 00001110 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 72 20 70 72 | manufacturer pr| 00001120 6f 64 75 63 65 73 20 63 68 69 70 73 0d 20 74 6f |oduces chips. to| 00001130 20 6f 6e 65 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 70 61 74 | one general pat| 00001140 74 65 72 6e 2c 20 61 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 20 |tern, a regular | 00001150 61 72 72 61 79 20 6f 66 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 |array of transis| 00001160 74 6f 72 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 0d 20 |tors which are. | 00001170 4e 4f 54 20 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f |NOT connected to| 00001180 20 65 61 63 68 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 6f 20 66 | each other to f| 00001190 6f 72 6d 20 61 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 20 20 |orm a circuit. | 000011a0 4f 6e 20 74 6f 70 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 6d 20 69 |On top of them i| 000011b0 73 0d 20 61 20 6c 61 79 65 72 20 6f 66 20 61 6c |s. a layer of al| 000011c0 75 6d 69 6e 69 75 6d 2e 20 20 42 79 20 65 74 63 |uminium. By etc| 000011d0 68 69 6e 67 20 61 77 61 79 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 6f |hing away most o| 000011e0 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 70 20 6c 61 79 65 72 2c |f the top layer,| 000011f0 20 62 75 74 0d 20 6c 65 61 76 69 6e 67 20 74 68 | but. leaving th| 00001200 69 6e 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 |in lines connect| 00001210 69 6e 67 20 61 72 65 61 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |ing areas of the| 00001220 20 75 6e 64 65 72 6c 79 69 6e 67 20 73 69 6c 69 | underlying sili| 00001230 63 6f 6e 2c 0d 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 73 74 6f 72 |con,. transistor| 00001240 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 6a 6f 69 6e 65 64 20 |s can be joined | 00001250 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 61 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 |to make a circui| 00001260 74 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 64 76 61 6e 74 61 |t. The advanta| 00001270 67 65 20 6f 66 0d 20 67 61 74 65 20 61 72 72 61 |ge of. gate arra| 00001280 79 20 74 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 79 20 69 73 20 |y technology is | 00001290 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e |that the silicon| 000012a0 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 72 20 74 61 | manufacturer ta| 000012b0 6b 65 73 0d 20 61 64 76 61 6e 74 61 67 65 20 6f |kes. advantage o| 000012c0 66 20 27 62 75 6c 6b 27 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 |f 'bulk' process| 000012d0 69 6e 67 2c 20 69 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 62 75 74 20 |ing, in all but | 000012e0 74 68 65 20 66 69 6e 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 |the final proces| 000012f0 73 2e 20 20 54 68 65 0d 20 64 69 73 61 64 76 61 |s. The. disadva| 00001300 6e 74 61 67 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 2c 20 63 |ntage is that, c| 00001310 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 27 66 75 6c 6c |ompared to 'full| 00001320 20 63 75 73 74 6f 6d 27 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 2c | custom' design,| 00001330 20 74 68 65 0d 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 20 77 69 | the. circuit wi| 00001340 6c 6c 20 62 65 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 |ll be physically| 00001350 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 73 6f | larger, with so| 00001360 6d 65 20 61 72 65 61 73 20 6f 66 20 77 61 73 74 |me areas of wast| 00001370 65 64 0d 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 2e 20 20 20 54 |ed. silicon. T| 00001380 68 69 73 20 6d 61 79 20 6e 6f 74 20 73 6f 75 6e |his may not soun| 00001390 64 20 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 20 61 74 20 66 |d important at f| 000013a0 69 72 73 74 2c 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 61 6c 6c 20 |irst, after all | 000013b0 74 68 65 0d 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 20 61 72 |the. circuits ar| 000013c0 65 20 70 72 65 74 74 79 20 74 69 6e 79 20 63 6f |e pretty tiny co| 000013d0 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 |mpared to the pr| 000013e0 6f 64 75 63 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 73 69 74 20 69 |oduct they sit i| 000013f0 6e 2c 20 62 75 74 0d 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 62 |n, but. the prob| 00001400 6c 65 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 2c 20 74 68 65 |lem is that, the| 00001410 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 65 61 | larger the area| 00001420 20 6f 66 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 | of silicon, the| 00001430 20 66 65 77 65 72 20 63 61 6e 0d 20 62 65 20 66 | fewer can. be f| 00001440 69 74 74 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 77 61 66 65 72 |itted on a wafer| 00001450 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 |, and the smalle| 00001460 72 20 74 68 65 20 79 69 65 6c 64 20 6f 66 20 77 |r the yield of w| 00001470 6f 72 6b 69 6e 67 0d 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 73 |orking. circuits| 00001480 20 70 65 72 20 77 61 66 65 72 2e 20 20 20 54 68 | per wafer. Th| 00001490 65 73 65 20 66 61 63 74 6f 72 73 20 68 61 76 65 |ese factors have| 000014a0 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 69 6e 66 6c 75 65 6e | a large influen| 000014b0 63 65 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 0d 20 63 6f 73 74 20 |ce on the. cost | 000014c0 6f 66 20 61 20 63 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 0d 0d 20 |of a circuit... | 000014d0 20 20 20 20 20 20 2d 20 20 22 53 74 61 6e 64 61 | - "Standa| 000014e0 72 64 20 43 65 6c 6c 22 2e 20 20 20 43 6f 6d 70 |rd Cell". Comp| 000014f0 75 74 65 72 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 72 |uter programs ar| 00001500 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 |e used extensive| 00001510 6c 79 0d 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 74 65 72 70 72 65 74 |ly. to interpret| 00001520 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 20 64 69 61 67 72 | the logic diagr| 00001530 61 6d 20 64 72 61 77 6e 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 |am drawn by the | 00001540 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 72 2c 20 73 69 6d 75 6c 61 |designer, simula| 00001550 74 65 20 69 74 2c 0d 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 20 74 |te it,. design t| 00001560 68 65 20 6c 61 79 6f 75 74 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 |he layouts of th| 00001570 65 20 61 72 65 61 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 |e areas on the s| 00001580 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 |ilicon, and prod| 00001590 75 63 65 20 74 68 65 0d 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 |uce the. informa| 000015a0 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 6d |tion that will m| 000015b0 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 |anufacture the c| 000015c0 69 72 63 75 69 74 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 70 72 |ircuit. The pr| 000015d0 6f 67 72 61 6d 73 20 77 6f 72 6b 0d 20 6f 6e 20 |ograms work. on | 000015e0 74 68 65 20 62 61 73 69 73 20 6f 66 20 73 74 6f |the basis of sto| 000015f0 72 65 64 20 6c 69 62 72 61 72 69 65 73 20 6f 66 |red libraries of| 00001600 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 62 75 69 6c 64 69 | standard buildi| 00001610 6e 67 20 62 6c 6f 63 6b 73 2c 0d 20 77 68 69 63 |ng blocks,. whic| 00001620 68 20 74 68 65 79 20 70 75 74 20 74 6f 67 65 74 |h they put toget| 00001630 68 65 72 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 74 63 68 20 74 68 65 |her to match the| 00001640 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 64 65 64 20 65 6e 64 20 70 72 | intended end pr| 00001650 6f 64 75 63 74 2e 20 20 20 54 68 65 0d 20 74 65 |oduct. The. te| 00001660 63 68 6e 69 71 75 65 20 69 73 20 69 6e 68 65 72 |chnique is inher| 00001670 65 6e 74 6c 79 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 76 65 72 73 61 |ently more versa| 00001680 74 69 6c 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 47 61 74 65 20 41 |tile than Gate A| 00001690 72 72 61 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 0d |rray, but means.| 000016a0 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 73 69 6c 69 63 6f 6e 20 | higher silicon | 000016b0 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 73 74 73 |processing costs| 000016c0 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 20 61 6c 6c 20 6c 61 79 65 |, since all laye| 000016d0 72 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 49 43 20 77 69 6c |rs of the IC wil| 000016e0 6c 0d 20 62 65 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 64 20 61 |l. be designed a| 000016f0 6e 64 20 66 61 62 72 69 63 61 74 65 64 20 66 72 |nd fabricated fr| 00001700 6f 6d 20 73 63 72 61 74 63 68 21 0d 0d 0d 20 46 |om scratch!... F| 00001710 75 74 75 72 65 20 54 72 65 6e 64 73 0d 20 2d 2d |uture Trends. --| 00001720 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 0d 0d 20 4e 6f |-----------.. No| 00001730 20 64 6f 75 62 74 2c 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 | doubt, computer| 00001740 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d 73 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 62 | programs will b| 00001750 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 6f 70 68 69 |ecome more sophi| 00001760 73 74 69 63 61 74 65 64 2c 20 61 6e 64 0d 20 65 |sticated, and. e| 00001770 61 73 69 65 72 20 74 6f 20 75 73 65 2e 20 20 20 |asier to use. | 00001780 41 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 66 65 |Already it is fe| 00001790 61 73 69 62 6c 65 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 73 6d 61 |asible for a sma| 000017a0 6c 6c 20 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 72 0d |ll manufacturer.| 000017b0 20 74 6f 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 20 61 20 47 61 74 | to design a Gat| 000017c0 65 20 41 72 72 61 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 73 6f |e Array using so| 000017d0 66 74 77 61 72 65 20 6f 6e 20 61 6e 20 49 42 4d |ftware on an IBM| 000017e0 2d 50 43 2e 20 20 20 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 0d 20 |-PC. Another. | 000017f0 6d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 72 20 6f 66 66 |manufacturer off| 00001800 65 72 73 20 73 6f 66 74 77 61 72 65 20 6f 6e 20 |ers software on | 00001810 61 20 42 42 43 20 4d 69 63 72 6f 20 62 61 73 65 |a BBC Micro base| 00001820 64 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 2e 0d 20 28 41 64 6d 69 |d system.. (Admi| 00001830 74 74 65 64 6c 79 2c 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 74 |ttedly, at the t| 00001840 6f 70 2c 20 27 77 6f 72 6b 73 74 61 74 69 6f 6e |op, 'workstation| 00001850 27 20 65 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 42 42 43 |' end of the BBC| 00001860 20 72 61 6e 67 65 21 29 2e 0d 20 54 68 65 20 70 | range!).. The p| 00001870 72 69 63 65 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 67 69 6e 65 65 72 |rice of engineer| 00001880 69 6e 67 20 77 6f 72 6b 73 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 |ing workstations| 00001890 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 | is coming down | 000018a0 65 76 65 72 79 20 79 65 61 72 0d 20 28 77 69 74 |every year. (wit| 000018b0 68 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 49 42 4d 20 50 43 |h the new IBM PC| 000018c0 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 41 72 63 68 69 6d 65 | and the Archime| 000018d0 64 65 73 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 73 20 79 65 74 20 |des systems yet | 000018e0 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 74 68 65 69 72 0d 20 6d |to make their. m| 000018f0 61 72 6b 20 61 73 20 52 45 41 4c 4c 59 20 63 68 |ark as REALLY ch| 00001900 65 61 70 2c 20 79 65 74 20 70 6f 77 65 72 66 75 |eap, yet powerfu| 00001910 6c 20 68 61 72 64 77 61 72 65 29 2e 0d 0d 20 54 |l hardware)... T| 00001920 6f 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 61 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 |o those already | 00001930 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 69 6e 64 75 73 74 72 79 2c |in the industry,| 00001940 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 65 6e 64 20 73 65 65 6d 73 | the trend seems| 00001950 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 0d 20 74 | to be moving. t| 00001960 6f 77 61 72 64 20 74 68 65 20 53 74 61 6e 64 61 |oward the Standa| 00001970 72 64 20 43 65 6c 6c 20 61 70 70 72 6f 61 63 68 |rd Cell approach| 00001980 2e 20 20 42 75 74 20 77 68 61 74 20 61 62 6f 75 |. But what abou| 00001990 74 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 77 68 6f 20 61 72 65 0d |t those who are.| 000019a0 20 79 65 74 20 74 6f 20 65 6e 74 65 72 3f 20 20 | yet to enter? | 000019b0 4d 61 6e 75 66 61 63 74 75 72 65 72 73 20 61 72 |Manufacturers ar| 000019c0 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 6c 65 6d 6d 61 |e in the dilemma| 000019d0 20 77 65 6c 6c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 74 6f 0d 20 | well known to. | 000019e0 61 6e 79 6f 6e 65 20 74 72 79 69 6e 67 20 74 6f |anyone trying to| 000019f0 20 62 75 79 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 65 72 20 | buy a computer | 00001a00 28 65 76 65 6e 20 61 20 68 6f 6d 65 20 6d 69 63 |(even a home mic| 00001a10 72 6f 29 2e 20 20 20 45 76 65 72 79 20 79 65 61 |ro). Every yea| 00001a20 72 0d 20 73 65 65 6d 73 20 74 6f 20 62 72 69 6e |r. seems to brin| 00001a30 67 20 61 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 20 61 64 76 61 6e 63 |g a major advanc| 00001a40 65 2c 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e |e, in a differen| 00001a50 74 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 2e 20 20 54 68 65 20 6f |t system. The o| 00001a60 6e 6c 79 0d 20 63 6c 65 61 72 2d 63 75 74 20 64 |nly. clear-cut d| 00001a70 65 63 69 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 65 65 6d 73 20 74 6f |ecision seems to| 00001a80 20 62 65 20 74 6f 20 77 61 69 74 20 66 6f 72 20 | be to wait for | 00001a90 74 68 65 20 6e 65 78 74 20 79 65 61 72 2e 2e 2e |the next year...| 00001aa0 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 0d 20 73 69 74 75 61 74 69 |but the. situati| 00001ab0 6f 6e 20 6e 65 76 65 72 20 72 65 73 6f 6c 76 65 |on never resolve| 00001ac0 73 21 0d 0d 0d 20 43 6f 6e 74 61 63 74 73 0d 20 |s!... Contacts. | 00001ad0 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 0d 0d 0d 20 54 68 65 20 |--------... The | 00001ae0 4f 70 65 6e 20 55 6e 69 76 65 72 73 69 74 79 20 |Open University | 00001af0 70 61 63 6b 73 20 6f 6e 20 4d 69 63 72 6f 65 6c |packs on Microel| 00001b00 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 69 63 73 20 66 6f 72 20 49 6e |ectronics for In| 00001b10 64 75 73 74 72 79 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 0d 20 61 |dustry are an. a| 00001b20 74 74 65 6d 70 74 20 74 6f 20 62 72 69 6e 67 20 |ttempt to bring | 00001b30 73 6f 6d 65 20 74 65 63 68 6e 69 63 61 6c 20 28 |some technical (| 00001b40 61 6e 64 20 69 6d 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 29 20 61 |and impartial) a| 00001b50 64 76 69 63 65 20 6f 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 65 0d 20 |dvice onto the. | 00001b60 73 63 65 6e 65 2e 20 20 20 49 66 20 79 6f 75 20 |scene. If you | 00001b70 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 66 75 72 74 68 |would like furth| 00001b80 65 72 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f |er information o| 00001b90 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 63 6b 73 2c 0d 20 70 6c |n the packs,. pl| 00001ba0 65 61 73 65 20 77 72 69 74 65 20 74 6f 3a 0d 20 |ease write to:. | 00001bb0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4c 4d | LM| 00001bc0 53 4f 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |SO. | 00001bd0 20 20 50 4f 20 42 6f 78 20 31 38 38 0d 20 20 20 | PO Box 188. | 00001be0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 | The | 00001bf0 4f 70 65 6e 20 55 6e 69 76 65 72 73 69 74 79 0d |Open University.| 00001c00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d | M| 00001c10 69 6c 74 6f 6e 20 4b 65 79 6e 65 73 0d 20 20 20 |ilton Keynes. | 00001c20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 4b 37 20 | MK7 | 00001c30 36 44 48 0d 0d 20 6f 72 20 70 68 6f 6e 65 20 30 |6DH.. or phone 0| 00001c40 39 30 38 20 36 35 33 33 33 38 20 28 61 6e 73 77 |908 653338 (answ| 00001c50 65 72 70 68 6f 6e 65 29 2c 20 20 20 71 75 6f 74 |erphone), quot| 00001c60 69 6e 67 20 70 61 63 6b 20 50 54 35 30 34 2e 0d |ing pack PT504..| 00001c70 0d 0d 20 49 66 20 79 6f 75 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 |.. If you have a| 00001c80 6e 79 20 63 6f 6d 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 |ny comments on t| 00001c90 68 65 73 65 20 6e 6f 74 65 73 2c 20 6f 72 20 6f |hese notes, or o| 00001ca0 6e 20 74 68 65 20 54 56 20 70 72 6f 67 72 61 6d |n the TV program| 00001cb0 6d 65 2c 0d 20 74 68 65 20 61 75 74 68 6f 72 2f |me,. the author/| 00001cc0 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 72 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 |producer would b| 00001cd0 65 20 70 6c 65 61 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 68 65 61 |e pleased to hea| 00001ce0 72 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 79 6f 75 2e 0d 0d 20 50 6c |r from you... Pl| 00001cf0 65 61 73 65 20 77 72 69 74 65 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 |ease write to me| 00001d00 2c 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |,. | 00001d10 20 50 68 69 6c 69 70 20 41 73 68 62 79 0d 20 20 | Philip Ashby. | 00001d20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 52 6f 6f | Roo| 00001d30 6d 20 31 30 37 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |m 107. | 00001d40 20 20 20 20 20 42 42 43 20 43 65 6e 74 72 65 0d | BBC Centre.| 00001d50 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 | W| 00001d60 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 48 61 6c 6c 0d 20 20 20 20 20 |alton Hall. | 00001d70 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 69 6c 74 6f 6e | Milton| 00001d80 20 4b 65 79 6e 65 73 0d 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | Keynes. | 00001d90 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 4b 37 20 36 42 48 0d 0d | MK7 6BH..| 00001da0 20 6f 72 20 6d 62 78 20 6f 6e 20 38 31 3a 42 42 | or mbx on 81:BB| 00001db0 43 31 30 38 0d |C108.| 00001db5
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